戴炜栋何兆熊《简明语言学教程》

nullWelcome to LinguisticsWelcome to LinguisticsA New Course on Linguistics for Students of English A New Course on Linguistics for Students of English Goals for This CourseGoals for This CourseTo get a scientific view on language; To understand some basic theories on linguistics in order to understand how language is constructed, how language operates, how language is used to do things, how language is acquired or learnt, how language changes over time and varies according to the situation, etc.;; To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields of language teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural communication…… for improvement of English proficiency in general and enhancement of the awareness of patterns and regularities in the English language;; To prepare for the future research work. Requirements for This Course Requirements for This CourseClass attendance (10%) Classroom discussion (10%) Fulfillment of assignments (10%) Final Examination (70%)ReferencesReferences戴炜栋，何兆熊，2002，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出版社。(Textbook) 胡壮麟，2001，《语言学教程》，北京大学出版社。 刘润清，1995，《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版社。 Fromkin,V. & R. Rodman, 1998, An Introduction to Language the sixth edition, Orlando, Florida: Holt, Ranehart & Winston, Inc.Study MethodsStudy MethodsCombination of Macroscopic and Microscopic Perspective 宏观与微观相结合 1) General grasp of the CONTENTS Contents is the distilled summary and abstract of the text providing the main idea of each chapter as well as the relationship among the chapters. 2) Detailed Study of each chapter The detailed study of each chapter will help you to understand the contents better. That is to say First read the contents to make a thick book thin Second read each chapter to make the book thick Third the final review according to the contents to make the book thin again null2. Combination of Understanding and Memory, Theory and Practice The only way to memorize the basic concepts in linguistics is to understand and analyze the examples given to prove the concepts. The convenience of linguistic study is that you can find the raw materials for linguistics everywhere in the language use. Try to think of more examples from your own language practice to understand and explain theories and concepts concerned. The application of theory into practice can sharpen your understanding about theory itself. nullCombination of Comparison and Contrast Comparison and contrast are the indispensable ways in the study of language. Comparison helps to find the similarities between different concepts while contrast helps to understand their discrepancy. The employment of both of them help to perceive the interrelationship among the linguistic concepts. nullCombination of Reading and Exercises 阅读与练习相结合 The purpose of the course, besides basic knowledge about linguistics, aims at the application of the methods and theories. Thus, exercises and tests assess the understanding of the knowledge, but not study in order to sit in a test. Do read the text before coming to the class. Don’t turn to the Chinese translation immediately without reading the English texts History of LinguisticsHistory of LinguisticsAlthough the formal study of language dates from at least the middle of the first millennium BC in India and ancient Greece, the era of scientific language study is commonly dated from the end of the 18c,when English was discovered to have the same ancestor as a number of European and Asian languages. This discovery initiated at least a century of intense interest in COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY, which involved uncovering links between languages, writing comparative grammars of related languages, and reconstructing their common “ancestors”.History of LinguisticsHistory of LinguisticsThese activities stimulated a search for the mechanisms underlying LANGUAGE CHANGE. In the 20th century, a change of emphasis occurred, largely through the work of the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, sometimes regarded as “the father of modern linguistics”. He advocated separating DIACHRONIC (historical) from SYNCRONIC (contemporary or co-occurring) aspects of language study.History of LinguisticsHistory of LinguisticsHe argued that language at any point in time is an interlocking structure, in which all items are interdependent, an insight which is now taken for granted in linguistics and forms the basis of 20th century structuralism. In the 1930s and 1940s, descriptive linguistics was developed largely in the US, as linguists sought to describe the fast-disappearing American Indian languages, with Edward Sapir and Leonard Bloomfield being regarded jointly as the “father of American Linguistics”.History of LinguisticsHistory of LinguisticsMidway through the 20th century, Noam Chomsky triggered another change of direction, when he investigated work in generative linguistics, a concern for the principles in the minds of speakers which could generate language (account for their knowledge of language in an explicit way). （刘润清，2002，《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版社。） nullChapter 1. Introduction null1. What is language?Language can mean:Language can mean:what a person says (e.g. bad language, expressions); the way of speaking or writing (e.g. Shakespeare’s language, Luxun’s language); a particular variety or level of speech or writing (e.g. language for special purpose, colloquial language); the abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a community (e.g. Chinese language, first language); the common features of all human languages (e.g. He studies language); a tool for human communication. (social function) a set of rules. (rule-governed); Edward Sapir’s definition (1921)Edward Sapir’s definition (1921)“Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”R. A. Hall’s definition (1968)R. A. Hall’s definition (1968)Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.”Noam Chomsky’s definition (1957)Noam Chomsky’s definition (1957)“From now on I will consider language to be a set of (finite or infinite) sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”Language can be generally defined as:Language can be generally defined as: a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system.Language is a system.Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat.Language is arbitrary.Language is arbitrary.Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.Language is symbolic in nature.Language is symbolic in nature.Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” ----Shakespeare Language is primarily vocal.Language is primarily vocal.Vocal---- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form. Language is human-specific. Language is human-specific. Human-specific---- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries.The design/defining features of human language (Charles Hockett)The design/defining features of human language (Charles Hockett)Arbitrariness Productivity/Creativity Duality Displacement Cultural transmissionArbitrarinessArbitrariness ----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings. Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… ) Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy…Productivity/Creativity Productivity/Creativity ----Peculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world. A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their calls from a fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible. The bee dance does have a limited productivity, as it is used to communicate about food sources in any direction. But food sources are the only kind of messages that can be sent through the bee dance; bees do not “talk” about themselves, the hives, or wind, let alone about people, animals, hopes or desires Duality (double articulation) Duality (double articulation) Lower level----sounds (meaningless) Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning) A communication system with duality is considered more flexible than one without it, for a far greater number of messages can be sent. A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (we make dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a dictionary of sentences of that language.)DisplacementDisplacement ----Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. A gibbon never utters a call about something he ate last year There is something special about the bee dance though. Bees communicate with other bees about the food sources they have found when they are no longer in the presence of the food. In this sense, the bee dance has a component of displacement. But this component is very insignificant. For the bees must communicate about the food immediately on returning to the hive. They do not dance about the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate about future discoveries.Cultural TransmissionCultural Transmission----Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct). Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees. A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language. The Origin of LanguageThe Origin of Language人们一直在探讨人类语言最初从何处以及怎样发展起来的这类问题， 不过几乎没有什么事实证据来证实语言的确切起源，因为人类语言也许和人类一样古老， 而书面记录的只可以追溯到大约四千年前。学者们对动物交际的某些形式进行类推、对儿童学习和掌握语言的过程以及对“原始”语言进行类推，企图从中探明语言的起源，许多人对此提出了不同的假设性的解释： The Origin of Language The Origin of Language The divine-origin theory---- Language is a gift of God to mankind. The invention theory---- imitative, cries of nature, the grunts of men working together. The evolutionary theory---- the result of physical and psychological development.The Origin of LanguageThe Origin of Language1. The bow-wow theory（汪汪理论） People imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment. 2. The pooh-pooh theory（噗噗理论） Our primitive ancestors uttered instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy. 3. The yo-he-ho theory（哟—嗬---哟理论） As primitive people worked together, they produced rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language. The Origin of LanguageThe Origin of Language1）缪勒（M. Muller, 1823-1900）提出“本能论”（ding-dong theory or nativistic theory），认为声音和意义之间有神秘的关联：人类语言是从原始人用声音来示所遇到的事件这一过程中发展起来的。 2） 叶斯柏森（1660-1943）认为， 语言是从原始储藏式不清楚的赞歌中发展起来的（sing-song theory唱歌说）。 3）格雷（L. H. Gray, 1875-1955）提出“感叹说”（pooh-pooh or exclamation, interjectional theory）。该假说把语言的起源归结为表达感情的种种感叹语词。The Origin of LanguageThe Origin of Language4）诺瓦雷（L. Noire, 1847-1889）以在繁重劳 动中发出的喊声来解释语言的起源，即所谓“喊声说”（yo-he-ho theory）。 5）帕杰特（R, Paget, 1869-1955）认为， 语言是从某些手势和舌头动作的结合中发展起来的（ta-ta theory达达说）。 “动物叫声说”（animal cry theory）、“摹声说”（bow-wow, cuckoo, animal cry onomatopoeic, heynonny-nonny theory）等。 6) Marxist view: language was created in the process of working.Functions of LanguageFunctions of LanguageThe term communication can be used to cover most of the function of language. But the function of language is varied.Functions of LanguageFunctions of LanguageJacobson defined six primary factors of any speech event, namely: speaker, addressee, context, message, code, context. Corresponding to these factors, he established a well-known framework of language functions: Referential---to convey message and information (context) Poetic---to indulge in language for its own sake (message) Emotive---to express attitudes, feelings and emotions (addresser) Conative---to persuade and influence other through commands and entreaties (addressee) Phatic---to establish communion with others (contact) Metalingual---to clear up intentions, words and meanings (code) Functions of LanguageFunctions of LanguageM. A. K. Halliday’s Summary of the Functions of Language: 1)       informative: function 2)       interpersonal function 3)       performative function 4)       emotive function 5)       phatic communion 6)       recreational function 7)       metalingual functionFunctions of Language Functions of Language Phatic: establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact. Directive: get the hearer to do something. Informative: give information about facts. Interrogative: get information from others. Expressive: express feelings and attitudes of the speaker. Evocative: create certain feelings in the hearer (amuse, startle, soothe, worry or please) Performative: language is used to do things, to perform actions. 许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统. 许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统.当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介; 当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具; 当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体.2. What is linguistics? 2. What is linguistics? ----Linguistics is the scientific study of language. ----A person who studies linguistics is known as a linguist. Four principles of linguistic studies:Four principles of linguistic studies:Exhaustiveness/adequacy Consistency Economy Objectivity The scope or major branches of linguisticsThe scope or major branches of linguisticsTheoretical linguistics(micro-linguistics) Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Use of linguistics (macro-linguistics) Applied linguistics Sociolinguistics Psycholinguistics ……Theoretical linguisticsTheoretical linguisticsPhonetics----speech sound (description, classification, transcription): articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics. Phonology----sound patterns of languages Morphology----the form of words Syntax----the rules governing the combination of words into sentence. Semantics----the meaning of language (when the meaning of language is conducted in the context of language use----Pragmatics)Use of linguisticsUse of linguisticsApplied linguistics----linguistics and language teaching Sociolinguistics---- social factors (e.g. class, education) affect language use Psycholinguistics----linguistic behavior and psychological process Stylistics----linguistic and literature Some other applications Some other applications Anthropological linguistics Neurolinguistics Computational linguistics (e.g. machine translation; artificial intelligence)Some Important Distinctions in Linguistics Some Important Distinctions in Linguistics Descriptive vs PrescriptiveDescriptive vs PrescriptiveDescriptive ---- describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use (modern linguistic) Prescriptive ----lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar)Synchronic vs DiachronicSynchronic vs DiachronicSynchronic study---- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study---- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time) Speech vs WritingSpeech vs WritingSpeech ---- primary medium of language Writing ---- later developedLangue vs Parole (F. de Saussure)Langue vs Parole (F. de Saussure)Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community. Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.Competence and Performance (Chomsky)Competence and Performance (Chomsky)Competence ---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language Performance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.Traditional Grammar vs Modern LinguisticsTraditional Grammar vs Modern LinguisticsTraditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Latin-based framework Modern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework Chapter 2 Phonology Chapter 2 Phonology Language is primarily vocal. The primary medium of human language is sound. Linguists are not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds----sounds that convey meaning in human communication. Phonetics Phonetics ----A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. [p]: bilabial, stop. Three branches of phonetics Three branches of phonetics Articulatory phonetics----from the speakers’ point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds” Auditory phonetics----from the hearers’ point of view, “how sounds are perceived” Acoustic phonetics----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another. Articulatory phonetics Articulatory phonetics Speech organs: three important areas Speech organs: three important areas Pharyngeal cavity ---- the throat; The oral cavity ---- the mouth; Nasal cavity ---- the nose. The diagram of speech organsThe diagram of speech organsLips Teeth Teeth ridge (alveolar) Hard palate Soft palate (velum) Uvula Tip of tongue Blade of tongue Back of tongue Vocal cords Pharyngeal cavity Nasal cavity Orthographic representation of speech sounds Orthographic representation of speech sounds ---- A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound. Broad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. clear [ l ], [ pit ] Narrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ] Some major articulatory variables Some major articulatory variables ---- dimensions on which speech sounds may vary: Voicing---- voiced & voiceless Nasality ---- nasal & non-nasal Aspiration ----- aspirated & unaspirated Classification of English speech sounds Classification of English speech sounds ---- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories: Vowels Consonants Note: The essential difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the air-stream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.Classification of Consonants Classification of Consonants ---- English consonants may be classified according t