从成人教育的观点思考个别课

從成人教育之觀點重新思考高等教育音樂個別課 1 從成人教育之觀點重新思考高等教育音樂個別課 Rethinking Applied Music Instruction in Higher Education from the Perspectives of Adult Learning 蘇鈴雅* Linya Su (收件日期 93 年 4 月 12 日；接受日期 93 年 8 月 10 日) 摘 要 音樂個別課，無論處於課堂教學或一對一的教學環境，無學級之分的，百年來始終仰賴 著傳統師徒制之思維模式為其認知基礎。然而，師徒制的教學假設，包含了它對於學習者和 教學者的角色認定，學習和教學之義意，於歷代的傳承過程中已被視為理所當然而鮮少受挑 戰，也因此使不同的社會知識建構方式持續受矇蔽。當此思維模式被應用於高等音樂教學的 環境中，似乎更顯為狹隘不足。原由它無法提供部分成人學習者於學習過程中所需之自主自 導權。因此，綜觀之，高教音樂個別課最根深的問題顯然淺藏於人們的意識形態，與人們對 音樂個別課之教學模式的觀念假設和運作方式有關。 如同成人教育與音樂教育之學者所薦，慣例練習(praxis)的哲學理念對音樂演奏之教學有 著深遠的意涵。而此理念的實踐不僅意謂著傳統音樂個別課之教學假設將有待重新定位外， 其附帶之教學方式也有待調整。若音樂演奏的最終教學目的與培養學習者之自主自導性有 關，那慣例練習便應是學習經驗裡不可或缺之程序動元。其果效需經由師生共同培養俱批判 性之反思精神與溝通能力方能達成。 關鍵字: 1. 高等教育音樂個別課﹕為配合本文，將定義為大專、研究院學級以內，特屬音樂學院體系 下之一對一與大班課 (master class)器樂教學。 2. 參考框架：“意義的觀點，用來過濾感官印象的假設、期望之結構”(梅澤洛, 2000, p. 16)。 通常產生於知覺意識外。若未經嚴格地鑑定、反思，常自動引發連串之後續動作(梅澤洛, 2000)。 3. 意識形態：看似合理且合乎道德地，卻未經質疑省察的信仰、價值觀、習慣、思想觀念體 系(布魯克菲爾, 2000;威廉斯, 1977)。 * 蘇鈴雅: Teachers College, Columbia University.Doctoral Candidate/Teaching Assistant 2 臺中師院學報 4. 慣例練習：原始於亞里斯多德。意指，“為特定目的所付諸且俱回應性與反思性的行為動 作”(艾理耶特, 1995, p. 14)。亞里斯多德最初用慣例練習來描述成熟個體於某特定的環境 背景下，為達成公義之道德理想所採取之目的性動作。換言之，“慣例練習的最終目的在 於為人們完成“正當、適當之結果”，其所附帶的目標立定和方法，與鑑定思考、道德判斷 所需的知識有關”(瑞哥司基, 1998, p. 28)。再者，慣例練習的概念同時寓意著溝通的運用(例 如，對話，反思式交談)為其不可或缺之程序性做法。如哈柏馬思(1973)所述，當理論與慣 例練習結合時，“它所意的社會是一個藉由人類語言交流所組成的行動體系。所以它必 須以意識交流為背景來實踐其社交意義”(p.255)。 Abstract Applied music instruction, either in class setting or one-to-one studio setting, has been relying on the traditional master-apprenticeship model as its epistemological underpinning for hundreds of years regardless of grade levels. However, its taken-for-granted pedagogical assumptions on learning and learners, teaching and teachers still go relatively unchallenged and have continued to mask the social construction of different forms of knowledge from generation to the next. When applying the master-apprenticeship model to applied music instruction in higher education, a great limitation seems to be unveiled as the model fails to support some adult learners’ need for self-direction. Hence, it is apparent that the fundamental problem of applied music instruction lies in people’s ideological assumptions concerning how applied music instruction should function and operate. As suggested by educators and philosophers from the fields of adult and music education, the notion of praxis seems to hold important implications for the teaching and learning of musical performance. To meet the praxial ideal, reorienting the traditional pedagogical assumptions underlying applied music instruction will be necessary, and the accompanying instructional approach will need to be reformulated accordingly. If the ultimate educational precedence of musical performance is concerned with cultivating autonomy and self-empowerment in learners, then praxis is an indispensable procedural element that lies at the heart of the educational experience. The realization of it will entail the cultivation of critically reflective minds and communicative competence in both teachers and learners. Key words: 1. Applied music instruction in higher education: for the purpose of this paper, is defined as college level and post college level instrumental instruction that takes place in one-to-one studio setting and master class setting within university schools of music and music conservatories. 2. Frame of reference: “is a meaning perspective, the structure of assumptions and expectations through which one filters sense impressions” (Mezirow, 2000, p.16). It typically takes place outside of consciousness and suggests a course of action that one automatically follows unless brought into critical reflection (Mezirow, 2000). 從成人教育之觀點重新思考高等教育音樂個別課 3 3. Ideology: a system of unquestioned beliefs, values, practices and ideas that appears self-evidently true and morally desirable (Brookfield, 2000; Williams, 1977). 4. Praxis, a term firstly introduced by Aristotle, “praxis connotes action that is embedded in, responsive to, and reflective of a specific content of effort” (Elliot, 1995, p.14). Aristotle used praxis to mean purposive actions of mature human beings who strive to achieve goals and ideals considered as moral and just for people in a specific context. In other words, “praxis is essentially concerned with the critical and rational knowledge of both means and ends needed to bring about “right results” for people” (Regelski, 1998, p. 28). Furthermore, the notion of praxis insinuates the role of communication (e.g., dialogue, reflective discourse) as a compulsory procedural means. As Habermas (1973) asserts, when theory and praxis remain intact, “it conceived of society as a system of action by human beings, who communicate through speech and thus must realize social intercourse within the context of conscious communication”(p. 255). 4 臺中師院學報 Introduction Douglass Seaton (1998), former president of the College Music Society asserts, music in higher education must articulate the moral value of what musicians are obliged to do. Because musicians are blessed with the unique ability to join others in a shared imaginative life, colleges, universities, and conservatories must cultivate opportunities for imaginative sharing of musical experience. While music in higher education represents a multi-dimensional infrastructure built on diverse musical disciplines, Seaton’s ideal should be applied to all branches of music learning including applied music instruction. However, the current state of applied music instruction in higher education seems to put the espoused belief in question. How instruction is typically managed appears to inhibit the attainment of the ideal rather than cultivate it. If Seaton’s ideal is to be realized institutionally, organizationally, and even to the larger realm, socio-culturally, the process of sharing musical experience should begin from the basic unit of musical instruction, between the teacher and the student. It signifies that not only teachers’ and students’ musical experience and knowledge should be afforded equal merit, but also the power and authority that come with knowledge and experience should be equally valued and shared between teachers and students. Unfortunately, this has not traditionally been the case. As suggested by music scholars and educators (e.g., Bowman, 2002; Coffman, 2002; Jorgensen, 2000; Kingsbury, 1988; Kogan, 1987; Small, 1998), the most critical problems within applied music instruction in higher education include 1) teacher subjectivity that functions as the basis for decision-making; 2) deficiency in fostering learners’ self-directedness; and 3) asymmetrical power relations among musical score, teacher, and student. Although addressed separately and differently, these issues seem to converge at an intersection in which the core is the ideological assumptions that structure the teaching-learning transaction of applied music instruction. Some have attributed the problems of applied music instruction as connecting to improper teacher training and deficient research experience in teachers. The present author argues that these problems can be readily avoided if practitioners are willing to remain perceptually reflective. While it would be unrealistic and even unattainable to ask in-service teachers to return to schools and become empirically trained, the problem at hand isn’t about becoming professionally trained nor is it about sharpening one’s teaching tools or strategies. Instead, it resides in people’s ideological assumptions concerning how applied music instruction should function and operate particularly in the culture of higher education (e.g., music conservatories and schools of music). In Music, Talent, and Performance, Kingsbury (1988) contends that the cultural system of the music conservatory typically constitutes a variety of unique social relationships and values, which set it apart from other educational environment. The lionized composers, the idolized master teacher, the patronage of pedagogical lineage, and the highly trained performers who render faithful interpretations of the composers’ sacralized text are among the major components that shape the social configuration of the conservatory culture. Premised on which, meanings of music, musical styles, and musicianship are defined and negotiated. In other words, the cultural system of the music conservatory can be viewed as being shaped on the basis of a fixed social hierarchy, in which 從成人教育之觀點重新思考高等教育音樂個別課 5 composers and compositions are placed at the top, followed by master teachers, then students. It is under this highly asymmetrical power relationship that the learning of music takes place. Kogan (1987) also makes a similar remark with reference to the culture of music conservatory. In her book, Nothing but the Best, the typical teacher-student relationship is described as intense and the teachers always seem godlike. Marx (1973) has defined "ideology” as a set of unquestioned beliefs, values, practices and ideas that are accepted as natural, normal, common-sense, and taken for granted. Often, these ideas secure the production of a cultural system that is immoral and unjust. Taking both Kingsbury’s (1988) and Kogan’s (1987) accounts into view, it is clear that the conventional ideology that lies beneath the pedagogical practices of applied music instruction is one that needs to be scrutinized. In particular, the ideas concerning power and authority of compositions and teachers, the subordinate role of students, and the convergent manner for making musical interpretations are among the major issues that require further critique. The acquiring of musical knowledge is a social process in which the issues of power and authority are inevitably intertwined and involved. Thus, rather than delving into the methodological aspects of instruction, this paper attempts to reexamine applied music instruction from a sociocultural perspective, aiming to put morality as the basis of discussion. Moreover, as some of the major concepts of adult learning are deeply concerned with the ethical and normative dimensions of teaching, they hold potential in shedding light on the educational thoughts and practices of applied music instruction. Therefore, in place of exploring the breadth and depth of adult learning and its pragmatic function in music education, this paper intends to grasp the philosophical essence of adult learning and seek perceptual illumination from its ethical implications. The ultimate purpose of this paper is to bring about perceptual awareness, call for attitudinal adjustment, and recommend instructional reorientation. It endeavors to offer an alternative set of perspectives regarding applied music instruction and hope they will serve as a guide in leading music educators toward a new terrain of thinking and behaving. In addition, this paper is primarily written for applied music instructors who teach in the ambiance of music conservatories and schools of music. It concerns music major adult learners, particularly instrumentalists (and vocalists) who aspire to pursue musical performance as a life-supporting career, and those who teach them. However, it has less to do with non-music majors and adult learners who take applied music lessons for the purpose of enjoyment. The outline of this paper is as follows: (1) overview; (2) major concepts of adult learning; (3) discussion and implications; and (4) conclusion. Overview Applied music instruction in higher education of the United States began to emerge after the mid-1800s as a result of the increasing establishment of music conservatories and schools of music. The foundational model was directly taken from the European tradition in which the sole aim of these institutions was to train professional musicians and music performers (Abeles et al, 1994; Bowman, 6 臺中師院學報 2002; Keene, 1982). According to Keene (1982), the Leipzig Conservatory appeared as the most sought-after European conservatory during the second half of the nineteenth century due to the high exchange rate of scholarship between Germany and the United States. As numerous German musicians who had formerly studied in the Leipzig Conservatory immigrated to the United States and became music teachers, under their influence, those who studied with them in the States tended to choose the Leipzig Conservatory as they studied abroad. Keene states (1982), the Leipzig Conservatory typically employed the class-teaching method for instrumental instruction. Students of compatible level were grouped to a class and expected to play for each other in addition to receiving criticism from the teacher. However, classes in the European conservatories tended to be over-crowded. This was considered a major drawback to instructional effectiveness. As a result, the Americans later modified the European practice by first reducing the class size to an average of two to six students per class to the final form of one student per class. Ultimately, it became what we recognize today as one-to-one private studio instruction. While the American music conservatories and university schools of music now adopt the one-to-one model as the principal method for applied music instruction, the European practice of class teaching is still retained in the form of master classes. Although these two instructional settings present different types of social context for learning (e.g., teacher-student dyad versus teacher-multiple learners), the epistemological underpinning of both remains unaffected and is deeply connected with the traditional master-apprenticeship model. Premised on which, teachers are seen not only as culture/knowledge transmitters but musicians whose methods, skills, and styles of playing are to be the model for their students (e.g., Bowman, 2002; Campbell, 1991, Kennell, 2002; Kogan, 1987). Oppositely, students are regarded not only as submissive learners who wait to be filled with anecdotal information, but imitators whose end essentially revolves around assimilation, replication and perfecting skills. Although the pedagogical assumptions underpinning the master-apprenticeship model may be effective in fulfilling the purpose of training skilled performers, is training skilled performers truly the sole aim of music education? As Bowman (2002) asserts, perhaps a distinction between education/training and musicianship/craftsmanship is required. If the development of musicianship is merely concerned with the acquisition of a prescribed set of identified skills through the transmittal mode, then training is perhaps an appropriate term to describe the process of preparation. At the end of this continuum, a skilled craftsman is created and shaped. However, the development of true musicianship requires more than the attainment of skills, but also one’s identity as well as ways of thinking and feeling. When viewed from this perspective, training is insufficient to cultivate musicianship, as it concerns only one dimension of human learning without considering the ethical and normative dimensions pertinent to the learning process. Instead, the term educating may be more appropriate to describe the nurturing of true musicianship, as education is deeply value-based, it cannot and should not, by its nature, depart from the ethical and normative considerations. Premised on the notion that education is qualitatively different from training and that genuine musicianship can only be fostered under conditions in which the true sense of education is brought 從成人教育之觀點重新思考高等教育音樂個別課 7 forth, the following three perspectives describe how the traditional pedagogical assumptions underlying the master-apprenticeship present a number of problems to applied music instruction in higher musical education. Imitation as a Way of Knowing First, when examining the traditional master-apprenticeship philosophy, it appears the model assumes imitation as its principle way of knowing (Bruner, 1996). That is, acquisition of knowledge is defined as the process of “knowing how”. As a result, the attainment of knowledge is synonymous with cultivation of habit and the aim of learning is primarily concerned with perfecting skills, which can only be realized through consistent, repetitive practice (Bruner, 1996). As Bowman (2002) asserts: The master-apprenticeship mode of applied music instruction, for instance, too often focuses on the imitative repetition to the detriment of educational ideals like independence, or the refinement of technical skills at the expense of curiosity, flexibility, and experimental -mindedness. (p. 75) Moreover, human competence in the view of master-apprenticeship is equated with abilities, skills, and talent rather than understanding and knowledge (Bruner, 1996). Even if the end of applied music learning is related to knowing how to perform skillfully, the imitative mode still does not help one acquire transferable skills. This occurs only when one learns through the intermingling of practice and conceptual understanding (Bruner, 1996). Asymmetrical Power Relationship between Teacher and Student When examining the traditional master-apprenticeship model from a sociocultural perspective, it is apparent that the model promotes a highly asymmetrical power relation between the teacher and the student. With modeling and imitation serving as the predominant interactive modes, the teacher-centered approach of master-apprenticeship insinuates that the teacher is akin to a dominator. His or her role is to not only impose instructional goals and methods but also judge students’ competency based on compliance. Respectively, the implicit role of the student is cognate to a passive learner. The student not only comes to the lesson presumably without prior experience and knowledge, but whose voice is generally subjugated because he or she is deemed as an empty entity who has not yet possessed the intellect for reasoning or rational discourse. Numerous educators and philosophers both inside and outside the field of music have all condemned teacher-centered instructional approach as undemocratic or oppressive (Coffman, 2002; Dewey, 1997; Freire, 2001, Tait, 1992). Yet, it is still entrenched in all grade levels and even through graduate school (Shor, 1996). Undeniably, if the autocratic manner of instruction suits a totalitarian society, it certainly does not suit those in favor of democracy. As instructional decisions are governed by values, habits, ideals and preferences, ultimately, they carry the potency in shaping what kinds of people students become (Bowman, 2002). If democratic values are to be imparted through musical 8 臺中師院學報 instructions, music educators and administrators should ensure that the created educational context and experience would foster autonomous thinking and acting in learners as the larger educational aim. However, as Dewey (1938) maintained decades ago, this can only be realized under the precondition in which students are empowered, namely, when one is seen as equal and invited to construct the purpose and meaning of one’s own learning. In light of the view, perhaps achieving a greater consistency between the means and ends of educational practice is more imperative to applied music instructors than imparting the mastery of musical skills. Learners in Applied Music Instruction within Music Conservatories and Schools of Music As master-apprenticeship adopts modeling and imitation as its prime modes of “interactive pattern” between teachers and students, with the intent to lead novi