论文写作技巧

nullWriting a Scientific PaperWriting a Scientific PaperThe Key Characteristics of Scientific WritingThe Key Characteristics of Scientific WritingClarity Economy The Completion of a Scientific ExperimentThe Completion of a Scientific ExperimentA scientific experiment is NOT complete until the results have been published and understood. “A discovery does NOT exist until it is safely reviewed and in print.” Edward O. WilsonIMRADIMRADIntroduction Materials and Methods Results And DiscussionThe Logic of IMRADThe Logic of IMRAD1. What question (problem) was studied? - The answer is the Introduction. 2. How was the problem studied? - The answer is the Method. 3. What are the findings? - The answer is the Results. 4. What do these findings mean? - The answer is the Discussion. How to Write the AbstractHow to Write the AbstractThe Definition of the AbstractThe Definition of the AbstractIt is a miniature version of the paper. Two Places of the AbstractTwo Places of the AbstractIn the primary journals: The target journals 2. In the secondary services: Biological Abstracts, Chemical Abstracts, or one of the other secondary publications. Two Types of AbstractsTwo Types of Abstracts1. Informative - to condense the full paper - as a “heading” in the primary journals - often without change in the second services 2. Indicative or Descriptive - in review papers, conference reports, the government report literature, etc. Two Forms of AbstractsTwo Forms of Abstracts 1. Abstracts of a single paragraph. 2. “Structured” abstracts consisting of a few brief paragraphs. The Coverage of the AbstractThe Coverage of the Abstract It should provide a brief summary of each of the main sections of the paper: - Introduction - Materials and Methods - Results - Discussion Economy of WordsEconomy of Words It should normally NOT exceed 250 words. Guidelines for Writing a Good Abstract Guidelines for Writing a Good Abstract State the background information about the investigation briefly. State the background information about the investigation briefly. State the principal objective(s) and scope of the investigation State the principal objective(s) and scope of the investigation Describe the methods employed. Describe the methods employed. Summarize the results. Summarize the results. State the Principal conclusion(s). State the Principal conclusion(s). Write it clearly and concisely. Write it clearly and concisely. Avoid abbreviations(缩写词) or acronyms (首字母简略词), unless absolutely necessary. Avoid abbreviations(缩写词) or acronyms (首字母简略词), unless absolutely necessary. Make it self-contained e.g. do not contain any references to the literature or to figures and tables in the body of the paper. Make it self-contained e.g. do not contain any references to the literature or to figures and tables in the body of the paper. The Stock Phrases for Stating the Background Information about the InvestigationThe Stock Phrases for Stating the Background Information about the InvestigationLess is known about the later survival or reproduction of such persons.. It is not known, however, whether there is a threshold weight below which morbidity and mortality are significantly greater.The Stock Phrases for Stating the Background Information about the InvestigationThe Stock Phrases for Stating the Background Information about the InvestigationThe use of systemic corticosteroids is a risk factor for the development of posterior subscapsular cataracts, but the association between inhaled corticosteroids and cataracts is uncertain. Data are limited on the attitudes and practices of physicians regarding assisting the suicide of patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease. Limited information is available on trends in the incidence of and mortality due to carcinogenic shock complicating acute myocardial infarction.The Stock Phrases for Stating the Background Information about the InvestigationThe Stock Phrases for Stating the Background Information about the InvestigationThere is a dearth of literature in the area of the psychopharmacological management of depression in cancer patients. The role of climate has received relatively little attention. Previous studies have demonstrated that a small number of the 125 medical schools in the United States receive a disproportionately large share of the research awards granted by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) .The Stock Phrases for Stating the Background Information about the InvestigationThe Stock Phrases for Stating the Background Information about the InvestigationA growing body of evidence suggests that electromagnetic interference may occur between cardiac pacemakers and wireless hand-held (cellular) telephones, posing a potential public health problem. Posteroventral medial pallidotomy sometimes produces striking improvement in patients with advanced Parkinson’s disease, but the studies to date have involved small numbers of patients and short-term follow-up.The Stock Phrases for Stating the Principal Objective(s) and Scope of the InvestigationThe Stock Phrases for Stating the Principal Objective(s) and Scope of the InvestigationWe tested the hypothesis that early therapy with inhaled glucocorticoids would decrease the frequency of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in premature infants. We conducted a randomized trial to evaluate early revascularization in patients with cardiogenic shock. We hypothesized that pre-patient charges would increase during the base year and then decrease in subsequent years. The Stock Phrases for Stating the Principal Objective(s) and Scope of the InvestigationThe Stock Phrases for Stating the Principal Objective(s) and Scope of the InvestigationWe examined the relation between physicians’ experience with AIDS and the survival of their patients with AIDS. We investigated the potential role of anorexic agents and other suspected risk factors for primary pulmonary hypertension. We assessed whether the distributes of NIH research awards to medical schools changed between 1986 and 1977.The Stock Phrases for Stating the Principal Objective(s) and Scope of the InvestigationThe Stock Phrases for Stating the Principal Objective(s) and Scope of the InvestigationWe performed a study to determine whether routine testing helps reduce the incidence of intraoperative and postoperative medical complications. To evaluate the relation between elective cesarean section and vertical transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type ( HIV-1), we performed a meta-analysis using data on individual patients from 15 prospective cohort studies. The aim of this study was to detect the extent of non-compliance with treatment of schizophrenic patients and assess the effectiveness of the intervention program. The Stock Phrases for Stating the Principal Objective(s) and Scope of the InvestigationThe Stock Phrases for Stating the Principal Objective(s) and Scope of the InvestigationThe purpose of our study was to determine the value of noninvasive measurements of the velocity of blood flow in the fetal middle cerebral artery for the diagnosis of fetal anemia. This study focuses on physicians’ assessments of changes in the scope of care provided by primary care physicians and their assessments of the appropriateness of the scope of the care that primary care physicians are expected to provide. To address this question, we studied the function of airway epithelial cells and determined the frequency of pulmonary symptoms in patients with systemic pseudohypoaldosteronism, a salt-losing disorder caused loss-of-function mutations in the genes for the epithelial sodium channel.The Stock Phrases for Describing the Methods EmployedThe Stock Phrases for Describing the Methods EmployedWe conducted a randomized, multicenter trial of inhaled beclomethasone or placebo in 253 infants. We analyzed the neonatal outcomes of death. We conducted an observational study of 9076 residents of metropolitan Worcester, Massachusetts. Using data from the Civil Registration System in Denmark, we established a population-based cohort of 1.75 million persons whose mothers were Danish women born between 1935 and 1978.The Stock Phrases for Describing the Methods EmployedThe Stock Phrases for Describing the Methods EmployedData on preterm infants (those born at 24 to 36 weeks of gestation) were analyzed separately from data on infants delivered at term (37 or more weeks of gestation). Our study included periods before and after the advent of reperfusion therapy. The surveillance system is based on voluntary reporting with the use of a standard case-report form.The Stock Phrases for Describing the Methods EmployedThe Stock Phrases for Describing the Methods EmployedThe children with cerebral palsy were compared with randomly selected control children with respect to characteristics noted in the birth records. Cluster analysis was chosen as it offers a statistically sound means of delineating natural grouping within data. Medical records were reviewed for clinical data.The Stock Phrases for Summarizing the ResultsThe Stock Phrases for Summarizing the ResultsThe results of a multivariable regression analysis indicated that the patients hospitalized during recent study years were not at a substantially lower risk for shock than patients hospitalized in the mid-to-late 1970s. The incidence of cardiogenic shock remained relatively stable over time averaging 7.1 percent among patients with acute myocardial infarction. Results suggest that the effects of stress have more to do with the characteristics of the work environment and overall workload than with the degree of specialization on the unit.The Stock Phrases for Summarizing the ResultsThe Stock Phrases for Summarizing the ResultsBlood pressure was correlated inversely with monthly maximal temperature and directly with minimal humidity. There was no clinically significant interference when the telephone was placed in the normal position over the ear. Adjusting for the use of systemic corticosteroids and other potential confounders had little effect on the magnitude of the associations. The Stock Phrases for Summarizing the ResultsThe Stock Phrases for Summarizing the ResultsBeing on leave was found to be associated with the need for assistance with transportation, limitations in upper-body strength, and employment in jobs requiring physical activity. After adjusting for these factors, the racial difference was reduced and no longer statistically significant. The trial did not have sufficient statistical power to detect differences in survival to hospital discharge, which differed only slightly between the two groups.The Stock Phrases for Summarizing the ResultsThe Stock Phrases for Summarizing the ResultsThese associations persisted when the data were stratified according to and controlled for 16 biologic, sociodemographic, and behavioral risk factors. There were no significant adverse effects of vitamin E. Electron microscopic analyses revealed that the cone angles of synthetic cores were indeed quantized into the five allowed angles. The Stock Phrases for Stating the Principal Conclusion(s)The Stock Phrases for Stating the Principal Conclusion(s)These findings may have relevance to human neurodevelopment disorders involving prenatal (drug-abusing mothers) or postnatal (pediatric anesthesia) exposure to drugs that block NMDA receptors. This finding emphasizes the importance of achieving cures and of preventing anyone with infectious tuberculosis. These findings may have implications for antihypertensive therapy in different parts of the world.The Stock Phrases for Stating the Principal Conclusion(s)The Stock Phrases for Stating the Principal Conclusion(s)These observations suggest that the core of HIV is organized on the principles of a fullerene cone, in analogy to structures recently observed for elemental carbon. Selective manipulations of activity at these sites may offer therapeutic possibilities for treating chronic pain. The discovery of this DNA demethylase should provide a basis for the molecular and developmental analysis of the role of DNA methylation and demethylation.The Stock Phrases for Stating the Principal Conclusion(s)The Stock Phrases for Stating the Principal Conclusion(s)This new technique shows promise as a noninvasive method of diagnosing pulmonary embolism without the need for ionizing radiation or iodinated contrast material. Efforts to increase the rate of surgical treatment for black patients appear to be a promising way of improving survival in this group. A recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody directed against IgE has potential as a treatment for subjects with moderate or severe allergic asthma.The Stock Phrases for Stating the Principal Conclusion(s)The Stock Phrases for Stating the Principal Conclusion(s)Our data do not support the hypothesis that everyday exercise is related to the risk of breast cancer. Our analyses suggest that the lower survival rate among black patients with early-stage, non-small-cell lung cancer, as compared with white patients, is largely explained by the lower rate of surgical treatment among blacks. Infliximab is an efficacious treatment for fistulas in patients with Crohn’s disease.The Stock Phrases for Stating the Principal Conclusion(s)The Stock Phrases for Stating the Principal Conclusion(s)High-frequency microsatellite instability in colorectal cancer is independently predictive of a relatively favorable outcome and, in addition, reduces the likelihood of metastases. Now, are you confident of writing a good abstract in English? Now, are you confident of writing a good abstract in English? HOMEWORKHOMEWORKRead your target journal; Final one good abstract, and one poor one; Make your comments to justify your selections.