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Macaques

2011-02-25 20页 pdf 1MB 12阅读

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Macaques enrichment Kathryn Bayne, M.S., Ph.D., D.V.M., DACLAM, CAAB AAALAC International Macaques for nonhuman primates Macaques ...... � ...... � Macaques Introduct�on Nonhuman primates maintained in captivity have a valuable role in education and research. ...
Macaques
enrichment Kathryn Bayne, M.S., Ph.D., D.V.M., DACLAM, CAAB AAALAC International Macaques for nonhuman primates Macaques ...... � ...... � Macaques Introduct�on Nonhuman primates maintained in captivity have a valuable role in education and research. They are also occasionally used in entertainment. The scope of these activities can range from large, accredited zoos to small “roadside” exhib- its; from national primate research centers to small academic institutions with only a few monkeys; and from movie sets to street performers. Attached to these uses of primates comes an ethical responsibility to provide the animals with an environment that promotes their physical and behavioral health and well-be- ing. Thus, an obligation is entailed that those individuals/institutions caring for captive primates should make every effort to ensure adequate veterinary care and husbandry are provided, that the animals are housed in appropriate facilities, and that as broad a range of species-typical behaviors are able to be expressed by the animals as is possible for the captive environment. This book serves as an introduction to the basic behavior and environmental enrichment of several species of nonhuman primates that are more commonly used in education, research and entertainment. In many ways, this book is meant to be a “how to” manual; it is not intended to be a broad scientific review of the primate behavior and enrichment literature. The fundamental premise taken throughout each chapter is that for an enrichment program to be effec- tive, there must be a basic understanding of the biology and behavior of the primate species. The species addressed in this series are: baboons, capuchins, chimpanzees, macaques, marmosets and tamarins, and squirrel monkeys. Each species-section can be read as a stand-alone document without need to reference the other sections. This then allows the user to distribute the different sections to personnel caring for the specific animals. Each section is divided into five parts: 1) Background, comprised of the habitat of the primate, the physical features of the primate, its psychological and/or so ...... Macaques ...... �� social behavior, and its mating and reproductive behavior; 2) Social World; 3) Physical World; 4) Special Cases, describing any age-related considerations and concerns associated with individual housing; and 5) Problem Behaviors. The content of this series has been provided by members of the Association of Primate Veterinarians (APV) and the American Society of Primatologists (ASP) who have special expertise in the species addressed. This book is intended to be a primer because it is, indeed, an introduction to the subject of environmental enrichment for primates housed in a diversity of conditions. A list of references and/or other resources (principally on-line) is provided at the end of each chap- ter that provide additional guidance. The use of scientific references has been limited, but should the reader desire more information about a specific subject, the links at the end of the sections will provide direction to obtaining additional detailed information. Readers are also directed to the National Research Council publication, the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (1996) and the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Animal Welfare Regulations to review the regulatory requirements of the Public Health Service and the USDA for the provision of environmental enrichment. The APV and ASP wish to thank the Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare, in particular Ms. Carol Wigglesworth and Dr. Axel Wolff; the U.S. Department of Agriculture/Animal Care, in particular Dr. Chester Gipson; and Ms. Dale Feu- rer, editor, and Ms. Lori Wieder, graphics and layout production, for their as- sistance with this project. The authors acknowledge the helpful contributions of Dr. David J. Shepherdson, Conservation Program Scientist, Metro Washington Park Zoo; Ms. April D. Truitt, Director, Primate Rescue Center, Inc.; and Ms. Kathleen Conlee, Program Officer, Humane Society of the United States. Spe- cial thanks also go to the chapter authors Dr. Christian Abee, Dr. Kate Baker, Dr. Linda Brent, Dr. Thomas Butler, Dr. Jeffrey Fite, Dr. Dorothy Fragazy, Dr. Jeffrey French and Dr. A. Michele Schuler, and to the reviewers from the Ameri- can Society of Primatologists and the Association of Primate Veterinarians. —Kathryn Bayne, M.S., Ph.D., D.V.M., DACLAM, CAAB Editor, Working Group This project is dedicated to the memory of Dr. Sylvia Taylor, Veterinary Medical Officer, Animal Care, U.S. Department of Agriculture, who was a proponent of providing enrichment to nonhuman primates and was generous in sharing her knowledge and expertise in this regard. ...... � Macaques Background Hab�tat The macaques represent a collection of approximately 20 species of monkeys, most of which are found in Asia. They occupy a wide geographic range that is considered second only to man in its extent. In this range, the habitat occupied by macaques varies from near desert to rainforest, and from sea level to snowy mountain tops. Some macaques spend the majority of their time in trees, while others are predominantly ground-dwellers. Many live in close proximity to human beings; the rhesus monkey is sacred to Hindus and is often found near temples in India and Nepal. Phys�cal Features In general, the macaques have a medium-sized body, with a stocky build. Animals belonging to the smallest species weigh approximately 13 pounds, while representatives of the largest species weigh an aver- age of 40 pounds. Tail length varies among the different species. All macaques have long, sharp canine teeth and finger nails that can pose a risk to human handlers through either bite or scratch wounds. They also have cheek pouches and a fully opposable thumb. The opposable thumb gives these animals the ability to manipulate objects (e.g., cage latches) with great precision. They feed on both animal and vegetable resources and have a highly varied diet. Macaques are primarily active during the daylight hours, and most species sleep in trees at night. Rhesus (Macaca mulatta) monkey with cheek pouches full of food (photo courtesy of K. Bayne). ...... Macaques Macaques ...... � Behav�or As a rule, the macaques are social animals, living in groups of multiple males and females; the sex ratio typically reflects more females than males in a group. Even for the same species, group size tends to be smaller when the home range size is also smaller (e.g., when constrained by human activities). Within these groups, individuals are ranked according to dominance (hierarchies), with the higher ranking animals doing more of the successful breeding and having first access to food and other desirable resources. Often it is the rank of the mother, rather than the father, that determines the rank of offspring. Young males may be evicted from their birth group as they approach puberty, forming temporary “bachelor” groups until they join a new group. Wounding of animals can occur when challenges for dominance occur. Because these animals rely in large part on visual communication, they use a number of facial signals, often accompanied by vo- calizations, to threaten or to make friendly overtures. Threat displays include opening the mouth in the shape of an “O”, a direct stare, raising the eyebrows quickly and repeatedly, flapping the ears, a jerky head-bob, shaking an object in their environment such as a tree branch or cage door, slapping the ground, or charging with intent to fight. Occasionally, a lack of compatibility between animals can be detected simply by the increased physical distance maintained between them. Behavioral indicators of compatibility between animals include social grooming, lip-smack- ing, and sitting in close proximity. Food sharing has also been used to assess compatibility between pairs of animals. Social grooming is an integral part of forming affiliations (photo courtesy of K. Rasmussen). ...... � Macaques Mat�ng and Reproduct�on The reproductive cycle of macaques is characterized by a seasonal estrus period, with menstrual cycles occurring throughout the year. Females have been reported to begin cycling as early as ap- proximately 1.5 years, although a more typical age is 2.5 years. Most species of macaques exhibit swelling and reddening of the skin of the rump, perineum, and occasionally arms, legs and face (referred to as “sex skin”). The swelling and redden- ing becomes more pronounced from beginning to end of the menstrual cycle. Exceptions to this are bonnet macaques and toque monkeys, who do not have marked sex skin. Menopause occurs in the macaques, with the number of menstrual cycles decreasing each year when the animal reaches her third decade of life. In general, the female actively solicits mating by the male (again, the bonnet ma- caque is an exception to this). Usually, the dominant males in the group breed the females more often, although less dominant males in a group have been reported to breed and reproduce successfully. The rhesus monkey’s gestation period is between five and six months. The infant is quite dependent upon the mother, and the current preference is to leave the infant with its mother until approximately one year of age to help ensure adequate development of social, particularly maternal, skills by the developing infant. Social defense of territory (photo courtesy of K.Rasmussen). Macaques ...... � Soc�al World Because of the intrinsic social nature of macaques, pair or group housing of compatible animals is extremely important. It is well-known that raising a ma- caque alone, without the company of other macaques of the same species, will result in that animal expressing a pattern of abnormal behaviors that can become self-destructive. Even the behavior profiles of adult animals housed alone can degenerate into inciting these abnormal behav- iors, which may include repeated pacing, circling, or somersaulting; hy- per-aggression; depres- sion; and self-injurious behavior, including hair plucking or self-biting. (See section on “Problem Behaviors”). While group or pair housing is strongly recommended for ma- caques, care should be taken in doing so. Since these primates establish dominance hierarchies and space is limited in captivity, the macaque wishing to flee the dominant animal has no place to fully escape. This can result in unresolved, increased aggression between the animals as well as wounding (and possibly killing) of one or more animals. Larger groups of animals that previously have been living in smaller stable cohorts should not be formed, because this will increase fighting between the smaller, pre-established groups. A better approach is to place unfamiliar animals together in a new enclosure at the same time. In this way, coalitions have not already been formed, and each macaque must establish its own place in the hier- archy without support from other animals. Evidence of hair-plucking behavior, a type of self-injurious behavior (SIB) on the leg of this macaque (photo courtesy of K. Bayne). ...... ...... � Macaques One approach to forming pairs of macaques is provided at the end of this chap- ter. The key steps include the following: • Introducing the animals into an area that they do not consider as their territory • Assessing facial expressions, postures and physical distance between the animals • Proceeding slowly in forming pairs • Planning ahead to have a way of separating animals should the fighting become intense (e.g., a panel to slide between cages, use of water, etc.) • Ensuring the safety of people performing the animal introductions • Providing ongoing monitoring of animal interactions, because animal relationships can change over time Using the natural social structure of the macaques will assist in forming compatible pairs or groups of monkeys. For example, because macaques will form bachelor troops, often males can be pair-housed successfully. Successful pairings of a young macaque with an older animal (so that the dominance hierarchy is clear and fighting is minimized) also have been reported. Offering vulnerable areas of the body to be groomed by another animal indicates a degree of trust and affiliation between the animals (photo courtesy of K. Bayne). Providing three-dimensional space in the primary enclosure, using Primahedrons® (photo courtesy of K. Bayne). Macaques ...... � Phys�cal World Hous�ng Macaques have been housed successfully in a variety of types of housing, including island environments, corrals, corn cribs, indoor-outdoor runs, pens and cages. Regardless of the enclosure design or size, it must be sturdy enough to withstand being shaken and chewed on by its inhabitants. Because of the animals’ tendency to flee upward when escaping a perceived threat, they benefit from perches, shelves or other structures that increase the three-dimensional space of the enclosure. Generally, older macaques prefer a non-moving shelf or perch, while the younger ones will readily use swings. Because macaques can strangle on lengths of chain, swings should be short in length and/or construct- ed of materials that cannot loop around the neck, such as flexible polyvinyl chlo- ride (PVC) tubing. Similarly, ropes can be picked apart or chewed on, and this may result in a gastric obstruction. Thus, in most cases, ropes of cotton, sisal or jute should be avoided. In general, macaques should not be exposed to cold or wet weather without a method for them to conserve body heat. Japanese macaques living in the snowy mountains of Japan manage to stay warm by soaking in natural hot springs. A number of cap- tive macaques, however, have lost parts of their tails or one or more digits to frostbite. This problem can be reduced or prevented by providing them with supplemental heating or a shelter. During conditions of high heat and humidity, macaques may overheat if they undergo a physical stress, such as being chased around an enclosure. Providing macaques with a shallow and indestructible pool in which to swim and cool off can be an asset to macaques housed outdoors in warmer climates. The swim- ming pool should be shallow, to prevent animals from drowning, and resistant to deterioration from chewing. The pool should be cleaned routinely to provide animals with good quality water for swimming. ...... A horse water trough, shown here, serves as a swimming pool for young macaques (photo courtesy of K. Bayne). ...... � Macaques Enr�chment The macaques are curious and intelligent animals. Providing them with op- portunities to investigate and explore their environment is enriching for them. This can be accomplished by maintaining toys in the animals’ enclosures. Since macaques have color vision, the toys (also known as manipulanda) should be of different colors; they can also be of different shapes and texture. Because the monkeys will chew on these toys, they should be relatively durable, such as heavy-duty dog toys. Toys should be removed from the enclosure when they be- come sufficiently damaged that the primate might swallow or choke on a piece. Rotating different toys in the enclosure and removing them periodically will help to keep the toys novel and increase the animals’ interest in them. Flexible PVC tubing can be installed in the primary enclosure to simulate branches for swinging (photo courtesy of K. Bayne). A variety of toys used with macaques (photo courtesy of K. Bayne and S. Dexter). The damage inflicted on toys after usage by macaques. Small remnants can pose a choke hazard to the animals (photo courtesy of K. Bayne and S. Dexter). Macaques ...... � A very successful way to fulfill these ani- mals’ inclination to explore and investigate is to give them the opportunity to forage (or search) for food. Since many primates will spend up to 70% of their waking hours in foraging-related activities, offer- ing captive primates the opportunity to engage in this behavior can be important in preventing the development of abnor- mal behaviors. Numerous in-house and commercially produced devices are avail- able, including toys that simply hold the food item and require the monkey to fish for or push it out. Also available are containers with finger holes or slots through which the monkey removes the food item, as well as puzzle boards in which the monkeys must manipulate the food item though a maze before it reaches a hole large enough from which the food can be retrieved. Food may be hidden throughout the enclosure to encourage search- ing behaviors. Food items may also be ground up into small pieces or pre-purchased as “crumbles” and then placed on an Astroturf® or artificial fleece foraging board. The small size of the food particle encourages manual dexterity and extends the amount of time the animal spends searching for and eating the food. Food treats, as enrichment, should not be offered in such quantity that the animal ignores its more nutritional daily diet or gains excessive weight. Many commercially available food treats come in a variety of flavors and are nutritious. Food treats may be dispensed from puzzle balls (photo courtesy of K. Bayne and S. Dexter). Wedging food treats inside a Kong® toy is another way to extend the animal’s time spent in “foraging” (photo courtesy of W. Brandon). ...... � Macaques This animal forages for food “crumbles” in an artificial shearling foraging/grooming board (photo courtesy of K. Bayne). Spec�al Cases Age-related Cons�derat�ons The macaques are long-lived animals, with reports of some animals living in captivity over 30 years. This lifespan entails a commitment of considerable dura- tion, with substantial, changing needs of the animal over the course of its life. As with other species of primates, the design of the environment should take into account the age of the macaque. For example, older monkeys will develop ar- thritis, limiting their ability to jump onto perches, swing, or otherwise navigate their enclosure. Older primates can also have reduced vision capabilities, thus further limiting their ability to move around the enclosure and interact with other animals or people. Conversely, young animals are very active and curious. The enclosure design should allow them to express these characteristics without compromising their physical safety. Young animals also are particularly sensitive to the effects of social deprivation and should be housed with other primates of the same species whenever possible. Ind�v�dual Hous�ng The circumstance in which only one macaque is housed on the premises should be avoided. If several macaques are housed individually in cages, they should ...... Macaques ...... �0 be able to see, hear and smell each other. If possible, individually caged animals also should have access to visual barriers in order to avoid being seen by other animals, should they so choose. It is recommended that if an animal cannot be socially housed, other forms of enrichment (e.g., toys, foraging opportunities) should be provided to compensate for the lack of social stimulation. Suscept�b�l�ty to D�sease Because of their close genetic relationship to humans, nonhuman primates can be susceptible to human diseases. Of particular concern is the exposure of macaques to tuberculosis from a human. Tuberculosis is a highly contagious, fatal disease in Old World Monkeys. Routine testing of the animals is highly recommended. Macaques are also susceptible to measles virus, and will show a rash
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