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Marmosets_Tamarins

2011-02-25 20页 pdf 1MB 23阅读

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Marmosets_Tamarins enrichment Jeffrey A. French, Ph.D. & Jeffrey E. Fite, Ph.D. Callitrichid Research Center University of Nebraska at Omaha for nonhuman primates Marmosets & Tamarins (Callitrichids) Marmosets & Tamarins ...... � ...... � Marmosets & Tamari...
Marmosets_Tamarins
enrichment Jeffrey A. French, Ph.D. & Jeffrey E. Fite, Ph.D. Callitrichid Research Center University of Nebraska at Omaha for nonhuman primates Marmosets & Tamarins (Callitrichids) Marmosets & Tamarins ...... � ...... � Marmosets & Tamarins Introduct�on Nonhuman primates maintained in captivity have a valuable role in education and research. They are also occasionally used in entertainment. The scope of these activities can range from large, accredited zoos to small “roadside” exhib- its; from national primate research centers to small academic institutions with only a few monkeys; and from movie sets to street performers. Attached to these uses of primates comes an ethical responsibility to provide the animals with an environment that promotes their physical and behavioral health and well-be- ing. Thus, an obligation is entailed that those individuals/institutions caring for captive primates should make every effort to ensure adequate veterinary care and husbandry are provided, that the animals are housed in appropriate facilities, and that as broad a range of species-typical behaviors are able to be expressed by the animals as is possible for the captive environment. This book serves as an introduction to the basic behavior and environmental enrichment of several species of nonhuman primates that are more commonly used in education, research and entertainment. In many ways, this book is meant to be a “how to” manual; it is not intended to be a broad scientific review of the primate behavior and enrichment literature. The fundamental premise taken throughout each chapter is that for an enrichment program to be effec- tive, there must be a basic understanding of the biology and behavior of the primate species. The species addressed in this series are: baboons, capuchins, chimpanzees, macaques, marmosets and tamarins, and squirrel monkeys. Each species-section can be read as a stand-alone document without need to reference the other sections. This then allows the user to distribute the different sections to personnel caring for the specific animals. Each section is divided into five parts: 1) Background, comprised of the habitat of the primate, the physical features of the primate, its psychological and/or so ...... Marmosets & Tamarins ...... �� social behavior, and its mating and reproductive behavior; 2) Social World; 3) Physical World; 4) Special Cases, describing any age-related considerations and concerns associated with individual housing; and 5) Problem Behaviors. The content of this series has been provided by members of the Association of Primate Veterinarians (APV) and the American Society of Primatologists (ASP) who have special expertise in the species addressed. This book is intended to be a primer because it is, indeed, an introduction to the subject of environmental enrichment for primates housed in a diversity of conditions. A list of references and/or other resources (principally on-line) is provided at the end of each chap- ter that provide additional guidance. The use of scientific references has been limited, but should the reader desire more information about a specific subject, the links at the end of the sections will provide direction to obtaining additional detailed information. Readers are also directed to the National Research Council publication, the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (1996) and the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Animal Welfare Regulations to review the regulatory requirements of the Public Health Service and the USDA for the provision of environmental enrichment. The APV and ASP wish to thank the Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare, in particular Ms. Carol Wigglesworth and Dr. Axel Wolff; the U.S. Department of Agriculture/Animal Care, in particular Dr. Chester Gipson; and Ms. Dale Feu- rer, editor, and Ms. Lori Wieder, graphics and layout production, for their as- sistance with this project. The authors acknowledge the helpful contributions of Dr. David J. Shepherdson, Conservation Program Scientist, Metro Washington Park Zoo; Ms. April D. Truitt, Director, Primate Rescue Center, Inc.; and Ms. Kathleen Conlee, Program Officer, Humane Society of the United States. Spe- cial thanks also go to the chapter authors Dr. Christian Abee, Dr. Kate Baker, Dr. Linda Brent, Dr. Thomas Butler, Dr. Jeffrey Fite, Dr. Dorothy Fragazy, Dr. Jeffrey French and Dr. A. Michele Schuler, and to the reviewers from the Ameri- can Society of Primatologists and the Association of Primate Veterinarians. —Kathryn Bayne, M.S., Ph.D., D.V.M., DACLAM, CAAB Editor, Working Group This project is dedicated to the memory of Dr. Sylvia Taylor, Veterinary Medical Officer, Animal Care, U.S. Department of Agriculture, who was a proponent of providing enrichment to nonhuman primates and was generous in sharing her knowledge and expertise in this regard. ...... � Marmosets & Tamarins ...... Marmosets & Tamarins Background Hab�tat In the wild, marmosets and tamarins inhabit diverse habitats, ranging from Costa Rica to southern Brazil and Bolivia. They are principally tree-dwelling animals. Phys�cal Features Marmosets and tamarins belong to the New World primate family Callitrichi- dae, which is characterized by unique morphological and reproductive traits. Callitrichids, among the smallest (.5 to 1.3 lbs.) of the New World primates, often are brightly colored monkeys with little, if any, gender differences in body size or coloration. Other distinguish- ing morphological features of marmo- sets and tamarins include claws instead of nails on all digits except for the oppos- able hallux, and two molars on either side of each jaw. Cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus) with nestbox and perches (photo by K.Bayne). Marmosets & Tamarins ...... � Behav�or Marmosets and tamarins have rich communicative behavioral repertoires that help individuals communicate within their group and with other groups. Chemical communication via scent marking is one important aspect of callitrichid social and sexual behavior. Scent marking increases when marmosets and tamarins are exposed to unfamiliar animals. Cal- litrichid primates have specialized glands (found in the anogenital, su- prapubic, sternal, and perhaps facial areas), which produce oily secretions that are mixed with urine and de- posited on branches and, to a lesser degree, other surfaces. These scents contain information on species, subspecies, and individual identity, as well as reproductive status, social rank, and the age of the marking. Scents are also thought to facilitate reproductive suppression of subordinate females in some callitrichid species. Marmoset (Callithrix geoffroyi ) parents sitting with their infants (photo by H. A. Jensen). Adult Geoffroy’s marmoset, Callithrix geoffroyi (photo by H. A. Jensen). ...... � Marmosets & Tamarins Mat�ng and Reproduct�on The social behavior of callitrichids within groups, in many ways, revolves around two aspects of callitrichid reproduction: reproductive suppression, which prevents subordinate males and females from engaging in sexual behavior, and extended residence of offspring in the natal family group. Subordinate females and adult-aged daughters living in their natal family group do not typically engage in reproductive activity and, in most cases, nonbreeding females are endocrinologically suppressed and do not ovulate. Likewise, subordinate males and adult-aged sons typically do not engage in sexual behavior. Reproductive suppression is known to be lifted from subordinate individuals when a new breeding male is introduced and following the death or illness of a breeding male or female. Cooperative care is another important component of callitrichid social life. Marmosets and tamarins typically produce fraternal twins that are cared for by all group members, including both male and female non-reproductive individu- als. This is particularly important because, at birth, litters weigh approximately 15 – 25 percent of adult body weight. Numerous studies have demonstrated that subordinate individuals provide a significant amount of care to infants born into the group. Indeed, the breeding male has been shown to participate less in carrying behavior when there are multiple helpers (e.g., adult offspring), with a concomitant increase in his survivability. The expression of competent care- giving behavior, however, requires experience with infants (either one’s own or siblings). It is suggested, then, that individuals remain within their natal groups during the rearing of the next one or two litters. Soc�al World The social lives of marmosets and tamarins are unique among primates. Marmo- sets and tamarins are the only primates known to exhibit a cooperative breed- ing system, characterized by extended residence of offspring within the family group, breeding that is mostly limited to a single breeding pair, and care of offspring provided by group members other than the parents. ...... Marmosets & Tamarins ...... � In captive settings, cal- litrichid primates are commonly housed in groups comprised of a single breeding adult male and female, along with the independent (subadult and juvenile) and depen- dent (infant) offspring of the breeding pair. Cap- tive groups generally do not contain unrelated individuals, because social groups containing unre- lated same-sex individuals are likely to be unstable. Studies of captive and wild populations of callitrichid primates, however, have revealed that there is some degree of intra-specific variation in social structure that can remain stable over long periods of time. In fact, a variety of different social structures have been found to result in stable social groups, including the following: • fathers with offspring • mothers with offspring • same- and opposite-sex siblings (note: opposite-sex sibling groups are not recommended for cotton-top tamarins) • same-sex pairs or small groups of unrelated or unfamiliar individuals • single same-sex or opposite-sex individuals of different species Intra-group aggression is generally directed toward non-breeding individuals by their same-sex sibling or same-sex parent. Displacement, threat behavior, chas- ing, and minor injuries often precede the eviction of an individual from a social group. The victim is easily identified because he/she will often separate from the group, show fearful behavior when approached by group members (especially an aggressor), and generally remain closer to the floor of the cage than other group members. Temporary separation for a period of hours or days may allow an individual that was in the process of being evicted to be reintegrated into a social group. These aggressive events within families are often triggered by periods of fertility in the dominant female, and special care should be taken to monitor group relations in the two to three weeks after the birth of infants, when the dominant females are likely to be ovulating. Subadult male marmoset (Callithrix kuhlii ) carrying infant sibling (photo by C. N. Ross). ...... � Marmosets & Tamarins Introducing an adult male and female is quite easy. Generally, a brief period of limited contact through mesh or a “howdy cage,” followed by a brief period of close observations once full contact is allowed, is all that is needed. Successfully introducing same-sex unrelated individuals or new adults into breeding groups, however, often is more difficult. In fact, the likelihood of failure increases with the age of the same-sex individuals already present in the group. For these intro- ductions, much longer introduction and observation times are necessary. Phys�cal World Hous�ng An ideal captive environment for callitrichid primates promotes good physical health, allows for successful reproduction and rearing of offspring, and facilitates the acquisition of skills that the animals would need to survive in the wild. Al- though there are no clear specifications for optimal habitat size, habitats should be large enough, and rich enough, to allow and promote a full range of natural- istic behaviors, social interactions, and locomotion patterns. The general rule for callitrichid housing is that no housing is too large. Also, as callitrichids are tree- dwellers and range up to 10 meters above the ground in their natural habitats, vertical space is extremely important. If space is limited, narrow, tall housing is preferred to wide, low housing. Cages often are constructed of wood or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) frames with steel or wire mesh. Many zoological parks also are constructing callitrichid hous- ing from textured rockwork with glass or wire fronting. The primary furnish- ing for callitrichid housing should be natural tree branches and other surfaces on which the monkeys can climb, leap, and run. Branches should be arranged to provide a network of pathways by which the animals can move about their home. Branches are particularly important because marmosets and tamarins use these as the normal substrate for scent marking. If natural branches are not provided, the monkeys will scent mark on smooth, nonabsorbent substrates, and the marks may soil their fur. Marmoset and tamarin group members sleep huddled together, so a nest box, placed high in the cage should be provided. Floors should be covered with wood ...... Marmosets & Tamarins ...... � chips or shredded paper; this provides padding for young animals, which are most likely to fall from a branch onto the floor, and it also encourages animals to forage through the bedding. Food and water should be made available on a feeding platform or in a bowl placed high in the cage in a location that prevents contamination by urine and feces. Since wild marmosets and tamarins are highly territorial under most conditions, visual and auditory contact between different social groups should be limited. When multiple groups are housed in close proximity to one another, and when overcrowding occurs within social groups, increased aggressive behavior is not uncommon. Further, chronic arousal associated with prolonged exposure to unfamiliar animals can lead to abortions and infant loss. Visual barriers, and sometimes sound absorbing materials, should be used to prevent territorial and aggressive displays between groups. In light of the important role scent marking plays in social and sexual behavior, it is often suggested that husbandry practices maintain a sanitary, but smell- intact, environment by sanitizing cages less frequently and/or allowing some scent-marked items (e.g., nest box, perch, branches, etc.) to remain unsanitized and, thereby, retain their odor. However, some practical experience suggests that Golden Lion Tamarin (Leontidius sp.) using a rope crossing between trees (photo by K. Bayne). ...... � Marmosets & Tamarins sanitizing these items routinely does not result in adverse effects on the health or reproductive capacity of the animals. Regardless, most guide- lines allow for the main- tenance of scent-marked branches in cages for periods of several weeks to several months. Environmental enrich- ment items and devices also are a necessary part of callitrichid hous- ing. Not only do they promote the develop- ment of behavioral and logical skills and mental and sensory stimulation, but they can prompt naturally occurring behaviors in the animals. The amount, type, and presentation of enrichment should be varied to prevent boredom. Foraging devices, artificial gum trees, cardboard boxes and gallon milk jugs with large holes cut in them, paper towel and toilet paper, are commonly used for enrichment. Feed�ng Meeting the nutritional needs of callitrichid primates is essential to their health and well-being in captivity. The diets of wild marmosets and tamarins include tree exudates (sap or gum), fruits, buds and flowers, nectar, insects, and small vertebrates. Since proportions vary between and within species, only general nu- tritional issues will be covered here. However, it is important to avoid over-feed- ing these animals with food treats such that they do not consume a nutritionally balanced diet. Further detailed information can be found in the Callitrichid Husbandry Manual. Example of basic cage with ladder/swing and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) nestbox. Branches can be added for scent-marking (photo by K.Bayne). Marmosets & Tamarins ...... � Young monkeys begin to beg for and eat solid food between three to five weeks of age. Approximately 20 percent of the diet of wild marmosets and tamarins is protein. A canned marmoset diet, which is now commercially available, should provide the foundation of the diet. New World primate biscuits also should be offered, along with an assortment of fresh fruits and vegetables. Two fruits and two vegetables should be offered daily. Cooked and uncooked cereals, and cooked pasta, are ideal sources of carbohydrates. Treats can include gum arabic, marshmallows, raisins, crickets, mealworms, and waxworms. In the wild, callitrichids spend nearly 60 percent of their day foraging for food. Live food or highly preferred food items hidden in bedding simulates a natural situation and provides an additional opportunity for enrichment. A foraging box can be easily made by placing highly preferred food items into small holes that have been cut into a cardboard box filled with bedding. Callitrichids also enjoy food items suspended from branches, and treat cups with lids and peek holes. Spec�al Cases Age-related Cons�derat�ons Healthy marmosets and tamarins maintain good abilities to forage and move about well into their old age. The only major issue with older animals is difficul- Golden Lion Tamarin (Leontidius sp.) perching on a branch (photo by K. Bayne). ...... ...... � Marmosets & Tamarins ty in chewing solid food because of tooth wear and loss. In these cases, soaking food in liquids prior to feeding or provisioning animals with softer diets are two easy solutions. In terms of normal social development, most institutions that rear marmosets and tamarins have a policy of keeping young individuals in their family groups until they have had exposure to and experience with one or more sets of younger siblings. It is assumed that this experience will increase the likelihood of success in rearing young when the animals are placed in a position where breeding is possible. As mentioned above, however, older siblings are sometimes involved in mild to serious fights with same-sex siblings, and may need to be removed from the group. Decisions about removing an individual from a group should be made in light of the need for normal experience with siblings and the serious- ness of the aggression. Rejection of infants by parents and the inability of infants to maintain contact with caregivers are fairly regular occurrences in captive marmosets and tamarins. In some cases, lack of infant success is associated with infant health and vigor (e.g., low birth-weight infants are unable to maintain a grip on their parent’s fur). In other cases, parents (particularly mothers) may actively reject and fail to carry and nurse their infants. A number of zoos and research facilities have reported some success in hand-rearing infants. Specific details of hand-rearing protocols can be found in the Callitrichid Husbandry Manual. It is important to note that hand-rearing is associated with a variety of behavior- al problems, particularly as the hand-reared individuals reach reproductive age. Therefore, decisions about hand-rearing rejected infants should involve a careful consideration of the animal’s purpose in the facility as an adult. A
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