语言学 第一章

1 1.7 Main branches (scope) of linguistics语言学的主要分支 Lingusitics should include at least five branches, namely:phonologic, morphologic, syntactic, senmantic and pragmatic.语言学至少包括五个分支：语音、形态、句法、语义、和语用。 General lingusitics 普通语言学-------the study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods appliable in any linguistic study. 把语言作为一个整体来研究的学科被称为普通语言学，它是语言学研究中探索人类语言的普遍性质和规律的学科。 1.7.1 phonetics 语音学-----studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sounds of speech , the description and classification of speech sounds , words and connected speech, etc. 研究语音，包括言语的产生（也就是言语在现实中怎样形成，传递和接受），言语的声音，语音的描写和分类，词语和话语连接等等。 Phonetics----The study of sounds used in linguistic community led to establishment of a brach of linguistics called phonetics. How speech are produced and classified. 1.7.2 phonology 音系学（音位学）-----studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. English has approximately forty-five phonemes. 研究的是语音和音节的结构，分布和序列，它将音位视为起止点，来处理语言的语音系统。音位是语音的最小的语言学单位，它能够区分意义的不同。大概有45个音位。 Phonology------how sounds form systems and unction to convey meaning in communication. Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning.语音学是研究在言语中人类嗓音所能发出的语音，而音系学则是研究这些语音中能形成语言和意义的一个子集。 Phonetics foucuses on chaos while phonology focuses on order.语音学是无序的语音，音系学则注重有序。 1.7.3 morphology 词法学----is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning----morphemes and word-formation processess.涉及词语的内部组织，它研究意义的最小单位---语素和成词过程。 Morphology------the study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to from words has constituted the branch of study called morphology. How morphemes are combined to form words. 1.7.4 syntax 句法学----is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences. The form or structure of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax. These rules specify word order, sentence organization, and the relationship between words, word classes and other sentence elements.句法是形成和理解正确的英语的规则。句子形成或结构受制于句法规则，这些规则规定了词语顺序、句子组织、以及词之间，词的格之间，和其他句子成分之间的联系。 Syntax-----the combination of these words to form permissible sentences in language is govened by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies, i.e., syntax. How morpehemes and words are combined to form sentences. 1.7.5 semantics 语义学----examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it, e.g. meaning of morphemes and sentences. Key concepts: senmantic component, denotation of words, sense relations between words such as antonymy and synonymy, sense relations between sentences such as entailment and presupposition.考察的是意义如何在语言中编码。它关心的不仅仅是字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和词之下的其他成分的意义，如语素和句子的意义。关键性概念：语义成分，词的所指，反义和同义等词语间的意义联系，诸如蕴涵和预设之类的句子间的意义联系。 Semantics-----the study of meaning was gradually developed and became known as senmantics. The study of meaning (in abstraction) 1.7.6 pragmatics 语用学----is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. In other words, pragmaitics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is structured.在语境中研究意义。它是在特定的场景中处理特定的话语，尤其注意于不同社会场景影响语言诠释的。换句话说，语用学关心的是语言被用来交际的方法，而不是语言组成的方式。 Pragmatics regards speech performance as primarily a social act ruled by various social conbentions. Some key concepts: reference, force, effect, and cooperative principles。语用学主要将言语行为看成是被各种社会常规所制约的一种社会行为。主要概念：所指、强制、效果和合作原则。 Pragmatics----the study of meaning is conducted , not in isolation, but in the context of use.研究语言与语言使用者和语言语境的关系。 1.8 macrolinguistics(宏观语言学): the interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,the science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,computational linguistics etc. (心理学,社会学,人种学,法学和人工智能等等语言学有关联.宏观语言学的分支包括心理语言学,社会语言学,人类语言学,计算语言学等等.) 1.8.1 Psycholinguistics 心理语言学-----investigates the interreation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example. There is the psycholinguistic study of grammar. The psycholinguistics constrains on the form of grammar are studied. It also studies language development in the child, such as the theories of language acquisition; biological foundation of language; and a big topic----the relationship between language and cognition.心理语言学考察语言和意识的相互关系，如话语的处理和产生，以及语言习得等。还有语法的心理语言学研究，即研究心理语言学对语法形式的限制。心理语言学还研究儿童语言的发展，如语言习得理论、语言的生物学基础和认知的关系等。 Psycholinguistics----it relates the study of language to psychology . the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind.研究语言的产生和理解。语言习得等问。 1.8.2 Sociolinguistics 社会语言学-----is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community.研究语言多样性的特征、它们的功能特征和说话者的特征以及者三者在言语社团中持续的交互作用和变化。 Sociolinguistics-----the study of language with reference to society.研究语言与社会文化的产生。 1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics 人类语言学 1.8.4 Computational linguistics 计算语言学----- is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language (also known as “natural language”, to distinguish it from computer languages.) 一跨学科的领域，它以计算机处理和产生人类语言（即自然语言，与计算机语言相区别）这一应用为中心。 Applied linguistics 应用语言学-----the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning. 研究语言学习和语言教学等问题。 1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics 1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive描写式”和 “规定式” prescriptive(规定式): a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,i.e.laying down rules for language use.(规定事情应该是怎样的.) descriptive(描写式): a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.(描述事情是怎样的.) Descriptive vs. prescriptive “描写式”和 “规定式” They represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive. What makes traditional grammar different from moden linguistics? Modern linguistics started with the publication of F. de Saussure’ s book “Course in General Linguistics” in the early 20th century. So Saussure is often described as “father of modern linguistics”. The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language before that is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.” They differ in several basic ways: Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. A linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of “correctness”. Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, may be over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence. Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. To modern linguists ,it is unthinkable to judge one language by standards of another. They are trying to set up a universal framework, but that would be based on the features shared by most of the languages used by mankind. 1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic “共时”和 “历时” synchronic(共时的): a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.(共时的描写以一个固定的时间(通常,但非必须是现在)为它的观察角度,大多数的语法属于此类型.) .diachronic(历时的):study of a language is carried through the course of its history.(在语言的历史过程中研究语言.) The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. e.g (1) an essay entitled “On the sue of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alernation. (2) a study of the features of the English used in Shakepeare’s time and would be a synchronic study, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. 1.9.3 langue & parole “语言” 和 “言语” langue(语言): the linguistic competence of the speaker.(说话者的语言能力.) parole(言语): the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).(语言的实际现象或语料.) The distinction was made by the Swiss linguist Saussure in the early 20th century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of language in actual use, or the actual or actualized language.语言是一个语言社会的所有成员共同使用的抽象语言系统。言语是对于这些抽象语言系统的实际运用。 What linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, i. e. to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics. (1) Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation.语言是抽象的，言语是具体的，是因人而异的。 (2) Langue not actually spoken by an individual , parole always a naturally occruing event. (3) Langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus nto suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great important, which casts great influence on later linguists. 1.9.4 Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用 competence(语言能力): a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.(一个语言使用者关于语言系统规则的基本理解.) performance(语言应用): the actual use of language in concrete situations.(指在具体场景中语言的真实使用.) The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Competence----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. According to N. Chomsky, “compentence” is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language理想的语言使用者的抽象语言知识and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterance , in linguistic communication. 语言使用者在语言交际中对这种抽象语言知识的实际运用。 Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a spearker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed compentence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language. How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance? Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Their purpose is to single out the language system for serious study. 1.9.5 Etic vs. Emic语音与音位 etic(非位的): a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was often the case with phonetic vs.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.(术语来自于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分.他更容易面临”非位”而不是”位学”的倾向,也就是实践中弄出来过多的不重要的区别,严格的语言学中有关语言和音位的分析就是这样的例子.) 4. emic(位学的): a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.(言语行为和事件中的位学系统必须是有效而有意义的,是通过言语社会中的本族语者而不仅仅是调查者的聪明和直觉获得的.) what is speech and what is writing? Which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or wirting? Why ? Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary , not the written. No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primary of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existed long long bfore writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. In contrast to speech, spoke form of language, writing as written codes, give language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messanges can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowuff, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional, while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading. Most modern linguistics analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and tehre to fore. Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistic study for the following reasons: (1)Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution (2)A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing. (3)Speech is the form in which imfants acquire their native language. What is linguistic potential ? what is actual linguistic behaviour? These two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, were made by M.A.K Halliday in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarlly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. “his actual linguistic behaviour”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said linguistic potential. In what way do language , competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts? Language, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different. Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventins; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker’s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisialbe but reliable abstract system. Competence means” knowing”, abd linguistic potential set of possibilities for “doing ” ro “ performing actions”. They are similar in that they refer to the constant underlying the utterance, that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences. posted @ 2006-10-14 17:53 浅色忧伤 阅读(916) | 评论 (0) | 编辑 收藏 Chapter1(2) 1.4 Origin of language 语言的起源 1.5 functions of language 语言的功能 Jakobson difined the six primary factors of any speech event, namely: speaker, addressee, context, message, code, contact. 雅科布逊定义了言语行为的六个要素：说话者，受话者，语境，信息，语码，接触。 Jakobson established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely: Referential funtion-----to convey message and imformation所指功能：传达信息 Poetic funtion -----to indulge in language for its own sake 诗学功能：完全就语言而语言 Emotive funtion ----to express attitudes, feelings and emotions 感情功能：表达态度、感觉和感情 Conative funtion ----to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties 意动功能：通过命令和恳求去说服和影响他人 Phatic funtion ----to establish communion with others 交感功能：与他人建议交流 Metalingual function -----to clear up intentions, words and meanings 元语言功能：弄清意图、词语和意义 They correspond to such communication elements as context ,message, addresser, addressee, contact and code. 它们与一些交流活动的元素相对应，如语境，信息，说话者，受话者，接触和语码等。 Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language , that is, language has:韩礼德提出语言元功能的理论，即语言有： Ideational function----constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations;概念功能：建构了经验模型和逻辑关系 Interpersonal function-----enacts social relationships 人际功能：反映了社会关系 textual functions----creates relevance to context. 语篇功能：创立了语言与语境的关系 Halliday proposed seven categories of language functions by observing child language development, that is , instrumental, regulatory, represnetational, interactional, personal, heuristic and imaginative.他通过观察儿童语言的发展提出了语言的七种功能，他们是工具功能，控制功能，表达功能，交互功能，自指性功能，教导功能和想象功能。 Function(功能): the use of language to communicate,to think ,etc.Language functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.(用语言交流,思考等.语言功能包括信息功能,人际功能,施为功能,感情功能,交感性功能,娱乐性功能和元语言功能.) language has at least seven funtions: patic, directive, informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. Accoriding to Wang Gang (1988), langauge has three main functions: a tool of communications, a tool whereby people learn about the world; a tool by which people creat art. 1.5.1 Informative function信息功能 What is the informative function? Langauge serves an “informatvie function” when used to tell something , characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true or false. According to P. Grice’s “cooperative principle”, one ought not to violate the “maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all. Informative function is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar. 在功能语法的框架中，信息功能也被称为概念功能。 Halliday notes that “langauge serves for the expression of ‘content ’”: that is, of the speaker’s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness. 韩礼德指出“语言为表达‘内容’服务：这个‘内容’就是说话者的真实的经验世界，包括他自我意识的内部世界。“ It requires some intellectual effort to see them in any other way than that which our language suggests to us. 它需要人类的指挥从其他的不同角度看待事物，而不是按照语言提示给我们的那样去做。 1.5.2 Interpersonal function 人际功能 1.5.3 Performative function 施为功能 This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration , etc, are perfomatives. 1.5.4 Emotive function 感情功能 1.5.5 Phatic communion 交感性谈话 phatic communion(交感性谈话): one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.(人类语言的功能之一,指语言的社会交互性.) broadly speaking, phatic funcion refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slangs, jokes, ja