英语语言学

语言学知识点* I语言学导论 II语言学主要分支学科 III语言学的流派和理论*I语言学导论1.designfeatureoflanguage（语言的定义特征）2.LanguageFamilies(世界语言分类)3.importantdistinctionsinlinguistics(语言学研究中几对重要的概念)4.scopeoflinguistics(语言学的研究范围)* 1.designfeatureoflanguage（语言的定义特征)definingpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication*1.designfeatureoflanguage语言定义特征 1)Arbitrariness（任意性） 2)Duality(二层性) 3)Creativity/Productivity(创造性) 4)Displacement（移位性） 5)CulturalTransmission(文化传递性)* 1）Arbitrariness(任意性): 定义：theformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning. 举例： 书,book,livre 喜欢，like，aimer* 2）Duality（二层性）: 定义：thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevel.举例：Sounds>syllables>words>phrases>clauses>sentences>texts/discourses* 3）Creativity/Productivity（创造性）: 定义：Languagecanbeusedtocreatenewmeaningsbecauseofitsduality 举例1：/k/,/a:/,/p/----carporpark 举例2：England,defeated,France EnglanddefeatedFrance. FrancedefeatedEngland.* 4）Displacement（替代性）: 定义：Humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizesomethingwhicharenotpresentatthemomentofcommunication.* 5）CulturalTransmission（文化传递性）: 定义：languageispassedonfromgenerationtogenerationthroughteachingandlearningratherthaninstinct. 反例：印度狼孩*3.Designfeature定义特征 1)Arbitrariness（任意性） 2)Duality(二层性) 3)Creativity/Productivity(创造性) 4)Displacement（移位性） 5)CulturalTransmission(文化传递性) 如何记忆:五性，创意遗传* 4.ImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics (语言学研究中几对重要的概念) 1)descriptive&prescriptive 2)synchronic&diachronic 3)langue&parole 4)competence&performance* 1)Descriptive（描述性）vs.Prescriptive（规定性） Descriptive:describinghowthingsare. prescriptive:prescribinghowthingsoughttobe*ImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics 举例： Don'tsayX. Peopledon'tsayX. Thefirstisaprescriptivecommand,whilethesecondisadescriptivestatement.* 2).Synchronic（共时性）vs.Diachronic（历时性） synchronic:takesafixedinstantasitspointofobservation. diachronic:thestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.* 举例： 研究1800年的英语发音 Synchronicstudies(共时性研究) 研究1800-1900的法语语法变化 Diachronicstudies(历时研究)*2.世界语言分类*2.世界语言分类**ImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics 3).langue（语言）&parole（言语） Theorist：Saussure（索绪尔）,fatherofmodernlinguistics langue:abstractlinguisticsystem parole:actualrealizationoflangue*ImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics 举例： 汉语系统 langue 每个中国人在不同具体场景中说出的具体话语 parole*ImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics 4)Competence（语言能力）andperformance（语言运用） theorist:Chomsky(乔姆斯基) competence:user'sknowledge ofrulesaboutthelinguisticsystem. performance:theactual realizationofthisknowledgeinconcretesituations.* 5.ScopeofLinguistics(语言学的研究范围) 1）按研究内容来分 2）按研究导向来分*语言学分类-按研究内容分*语言学分类-按研究内容分**语言学分类-按研究导向分*语言学分类-按研究内容分*语言学分类-按研究内容分* 考点: 1.语音学(phonetics)和音系学(phonology)的定义和区别 2.语音学重要概念:清音和浊音 3.音系学重要概念:音子，音位,超音段特征 * Phoneticsstudiesallspeechsoundsinhumanlanguages:howtheyareproduced,transmittedandhowtheyarereceived. Phonology:aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication. 区别:meaning(是否研究和表达意义有关的语音） * 举例: too和tea中的/t/ 发too中的/t/时,舌位更靠近口腔前部 发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部 语音学要研究这种/t/发音的不同之处,音系学不研究 * Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.*语音学分类 articulatoryphonetics(发音语音学):speaker’sproduction acousticphonetics（声学语音学）:transmission’smedium auditoryphonetics(听觉语音学):receiver’sreception* 如何记忆phonetics和phonolgy的区别: 联想:mathematics,physics,mechanics phonetics语言学，-ics科学性更强 geology,sociology,astrology phonology音系学，-ology人文性更强*HowspeechsoundsaremadeSpeechorgans**Positionofthevocalfolds(声带):voicing(浊音)andvoiceless(清音)* Voiceless(清音)：vocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingtheairstreamgothroughwithoutcausingobstruction 清音举例：[p,s,t] Voicing/Voiced（浊音）：vocalcordsheldtogether,lettingtheairstreamvibrates 浊音:[b,z,d]* Thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream. Asthereisnoobstructionofairintheproductionofvowels,thedescriptionoftheconsonantsandvowelscannotbedonealongthesamelines.* 音系学定义：studyofhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication. 音系学重要概念: phone音子， phoneme音位(音系研究的基本单位) supra-segmentalfeatures超音段特征* Phone(音子)：aphoneticunit;thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringcommunicationareallphones 举例: too和tea中的/t/ 发too中的/t/时,舌位更靠近口腔前部 发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部 所以too和tea中的/t/两个不同的音子 *Phoneme(音位):phonologicalandabstractunit,aunitofdistinctivevalue;thesmallestunitofsoundinalanguagewhichcandistinguishtwowords.举例：tea和sea,/t/和/s/是两个不同的音位morpheme* Whatisthepointofdepartureofphonology? A.phoneB.soundC.voiceD.phoneme* Whatisthepointofdepartureofphonology? A.phoneB.soundC.voiceD.phoneme(音位)* Whatisthepointofdepartureofphonetics? A.phoneB.soundC.voiceD.phoneme* Whatisthepointofdepartureofphonetics? A.phoneB.soundC.voiceD.phoneme*Suprasegmentalfeatures(超音段特征) Suprasegmentalfeatures:phonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments. Theprincipalsuprasegmentalsare:* Supra-segmentalfeatures(超音段特征)： stress（重音） 举例:perfect(adj)和perfect(v) tone(声调)/pitch(音高): 定义:soundfeaturewhicharecausedbythedifferingrateofvibrationofthevocalfolds. 举例:mā妈,má麻,mă马，mà骂 比较：英语单词，如me* intonation（语调）：pitch,stress,andsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation.举例:*Morphology形态学 1.学科定义 2.语素的定义和分类 3.词的分类（classificationofwords）*形态学研究的基本单位 1.morpheme(语素）.Themostbasicelementofmeaninginlanguage，anelementthatcannotbefurtherdividedintosmallerunitswithoutalteringitsmeaning. 举例： ball football balls**TypesofMorphemes Freemorphemesvs.Boundmorphemes（自由语素和黏着语素）: Freemorphemes:thosethatmayconstitutewordsbythemselves,egboy,girl,table,nation. Boundmorphemes:thosethatcannotoccuralone,eg-s,-ed,dis-,un-.*TypesofBoundMorpheme Inflectionalmorpheme(屈折语素)=inflectionalaffix(屈折词缀)：changethegrammaticalmeaning(number,aspect,case,tense) Derivationalmorpheme（派生语素）=inflectionalaffix(派生词缀）:changethelexicalmeaning* dis+like+sderivationalfreeinflectionalmorpheme* light+en+edfreederivationalinflectionalmorpheme* Derivationalmorpheme(改变词义): 改变词义：dis-,un-,multi-,micro- 改变词性：en-,-full,-ment Inflectionalmorpheme（改变语法含义）: 改变名称的性，数，格：-ess,-s, 改变动词的时,态，体:-ing,-ed, 改变形容词的级：-er,-est*词的分类-按构词法分* 如何区分派生词（derivationalword）和合成词(compoundword):拆开后看各个组成的语素能否都单独成词，如果可以，就是合成词，如果不能就是派生词。 Businessman:business+man Playboy:play+boy Mouthful:mouth+ful Lighten:light+en*词的分类-按词义分*词的分类-按开放性分*词的分类-按在句子重要性分* 分类方法 按构词法分 简单词:dislike,light 派生词:dislike,lighten 合成词:cat-like,light-weight 按词义分 语法词:冠,介，代，连词 词汇词:名，动，形，副 按开放性分 开放词:名，动，形，副 封闭词:冠,介，代，连词 按在句中重要性分 主要词类:名，动，形，副,介 次要词类：冠，代，连词*Syntax句法 考点 1.定义 2.句法范畴 3.句子类型* 1.Syntax定义：:studiesinternalstructureofsentenceandrulesofsentence-formation* Category(范畴):agroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchassentence,anounphraseoraverb(起相同作用的一类语言单位) Syntacticalcategory(句法范畴):agroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinsentence-formation.（在句子构成中起相同作用的一类语言单位）*Syntacticalcategory(句法范畴) Word-----------lexicalcategory Phrase---------phrasalcategory Clause---------clausalcategory Sentence *LexicalCategory词法范畴=PartsofSpeech词类* 分类方法 按构词法分 简单词:dislike,light 派生词:dislike,lighten 合成词:cat-like,light-weight 按词义分 语法词:冠,介，代，连词 词汇词:名，动，形，副 按开放性分 开放词:名，动，形，副 封闭词:冠,介，代，连词 按在句中重要性分 主要词类/范畴:名，动，形，副,介 次要词类/范畴：冠，代，连词* phrase specifierheadcomplement acarfivemetersaway **SentenceTypes(句子类型) simpleSentence complex non-simple compound* 4.句子分类： Simplesentence简单句 Coordinatesentence并列句 Complexsentence复杂句* simplesentence简单句 定义：alsocalledindependentclause,containsasubjectandaverb,anditexpressesacompletethought.* 练习：JimandMikeplayfootballeveryafternoon. (simplesentence) Marygoestothelibraryandstudieseveryday. (coordinatesentence)* coordinatesentence并列句:containstwoindependentclausesjoinedbyacoordinator(并列连词)suchasand,or,butetc.Coordinatorsareoftenprecededbyacomma. 例句: ItriedtospeakSpanish,andmyfriendtriedtospeakEnglish. Lilywenttoplayfootball,butMariawentshopping.* Youhavetodoitonewayortheother. Simplesentence Theworkerswerecheerful,oratleasttheyappearedtobecheerful. Coordinatesentence* complexsentence 定义：Acomplexsentencehasanindependentclausejoinedwithoneormoredependentclausesbyoneormoresubordinators(从属连词)suchasif,when,because,althoug.* Asheisgrowingold,heseldomgoesout. Heisgrowingold,whereashebecomeshealthier. 如何区分并列和复杂句---看连词表示的关系 并列，选择和转折关系---并列句 时间，条件，原因和让步关系---复杂句*Semantics 考点： 1.定义：studyofmeaning 2.两种基本意义：reference指称和sense涵义 3.五种词语语义关系* LudwigWittgenstein:‘Themeaningofawordisitsuseinthelanguage’. Meaningisstudiedbymakingdetailedanalysesofthewaywordsandsentencesareusedinspecificcontexts. Reference（指称）:howlanguagereferstotherealphysicalworld(语言指代外部物质世界) Sense（涵义）:inherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisabstractandthemeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.(语言形式的内在意义)* concept symbolizesrefersto symbolreferent (word)standsfor(object)**Synonymy同义 Synonymy同义:samenessorsimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.*同义分类举例 dialecticalsynonym地域同义词： 举例:fallandautumn,flatandapartment stylisticsynonym风格同义词： 举例:copandpolice,kidandoffspring collocationalsynonym搭配同义词： 举例:accuseof,chargewith,rebukefor Semanticallydifferentsynonym语义稍有不同的同义词: 举例:surpriseandastound,blameandrebuke*Antonymy反义 Antonymy反义:oppositenessofmeaning.Wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningarecalledantonyms. Antonymy反义关系分类： gradableantonymy等级反义 complementaryantonymy互补反义 converseantonymy反向反义*Gradableantonymy等级反义 young--------middle-aged---------------old big--------middle-sized---------------small good-------------average-----------------bad*Complementaryantonymy互补反义 alive:dead male:female present:absent innocent:guilty odd:even pass:fail boy:girl hit:miss*Converseantonymy反向反义 buy:sell lend:borrow give:receive parent:child husband:wife teacher:student above:below before:after host:guest employer:employee*Hyponymy上下义关系 Hyponymy上下义:referstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword. Superordinate/hypernym上义词:themoregeneralterm Hyponym下义词:themorespecificterm* 举例: hypernym上义词:animal Hyponym下义词:bird,fish,tiger,cat 如何记忆: hyper---向上hype炒作 hypo---向下hypothesis假设*Animalbirdfishinsectanimalhumananimaltigerlionelephant...*Polysemy一词多义 Polysemy:thesameonewordhasmorethanonemeaning.Suchawordiscalledpolysemicword. 举例: Fish: 1.鱼 2.鱼肉 3.水生动物 4.捕鱼 5.寻找* Homonymy同音/同形异义词:wordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth. Identicalinsound:homophones同音词 Identicalinspelling:homograph同形词 Identicalinboth:completehomonyms同音同形词* homophones同音词： 举例:knightandnight,pieceandpeace homograph同形词 举例:tear(v)andtear(n),lead(v)andlead(n) completehomonyms同音同形词:fast(adj)andfast(n)* 如何区分同音同形和一词多义现象:beauty,fish,ball,scale beauty:美丽；美女 fish:鱼；鱼肉；水生动物；捕鱼；寻找 ball:球；舞会 scale:规模；鱼鳞 看其多个意义之间是否有关联，如果有就是一词多义，没有就是同音同形词 *Pragmatics语用学 考点: 定义和与语义学的区别：studyofmeaningincontextorinuse 言语行为理论（两位理论家和三种行为） 会话原则*2.SpeechActTheory JohnAustin(1911-1960) HowtoDoThingswithWords(1962) MainIdea:thingscanbedonewithwords* Constatives(叙事句)vs.performatives（施为句） Constatives（叙事句）:utteranceswhichroughlyservestostateafact,reportthatsomethingisthecase,ordescribewhatsomethingis,eg: IgototheparkeverySunday. IteachEnglish.* Performatives（施为句）:utteranceswhichareusedtoperformacts,donotdescribeorreportanythingatall;theutteringofthesentenceisthedoingofanaction;theycannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse. Performativeverbs:name,bet,etc.*ThreeSpeechActs(三种言语行为) Alocutionaryact(言内行为):theactofutteringwords,phrase,sentences.Itisanactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology. Anillocutionaryact（言外行为）:anactofexpressionspeaker’sintention;itisanactperformedinsayingsomething. Aperlocutionaryact（言后行为）:theactpreformedbyorasaresultofsaying,theeffectsonthehearer.*三种话语行为-举例 老师对学生说:Youhaveleftthedooropen. Locutionaryact(言内行为):theactofutteringthewordsof“you”,“have”,“left”,“the”,“door”,“open” Illocutinaryact(言外行为):theactofexpressingtheteacher’sintentionofaskingthestudenttoclosethedoor. Perlocutionaryact(言后行为):theeffectoftheutterance:studentgoestoclosethedoor **IllocutionaryActTheory 美国哲学家JohnSearle(约翰-塞尔，1932-) 在Austin理论基础上把言外行为进一步分为5类： 陈述（assertives），指示(directives)，承诺(commissives)，表达(expressives)，宣告（declaratives）*ConversationalImplicature（会话含义理论） Theorist：英国语言学家HerbertPaulGrice(格莱斯，1913-1988) MainIdea:Peopledonotusuallysaythingsdirectlybuttendtoimplythem.*TheCooperativePrinciple(CP，合作原则) MaximofQuality（数量准则） MaximofQuantity（质量准则） MaximofRelation（关系准则） MaximofManner（方式准则）*TheCooperativePrinciple(CP，合作原则) MaximofQuality（数量准则） Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse. Donotsaysomethingifyoulackadequateevidence; MaximofQuantity（质量准则） MaximofRelation（关系准则） MaximofManner（方式准则）* MaximofQuality（数量准则） MaximofQuantity（质量准则）： Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange). Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanrequired. MaximofRelation（关系准则） MaximofManner（方式准则）* MaximofQuality（数量准则） MaximofQuantity（质量准则） MaximofRelation（关系准则）： Berelative. MaximofManner（方式准则） * MaximofQuality（数量准则） MaximofQuantity（质量准则） MaximofRelation（关系准则） MaximofManner(方式准则)： Beperspicuous. Avoidobscurityofexpression. Avoidambiguity. Bebrief. Beorderly. *Macro-Linguistics宏观语言学* Sociolinguistics社会语言学 1.定义 2.语言变体languagevariety 3.双语* Sociolinguistics社会语言学 1定义：Thesub-fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive. Speech语言变体 双语* Sociolinguistics社会语言学 定义 Speechvariety/languagevariety语言变体:refertoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers. 双语**** Pidgin(洋泾浜语/皮钦语)：aspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesorblendslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeaksdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading. 上海洋泾浜* 上海话中的洋泾浜英语 “蹩脚”（BILGE，船底污水，引申为肮脏的、下三滥的、劣质的） “瘪三”（BEGSIR，乞丐先生，用来形容叫花子、难民、逃荒者等各式穷人，后引申为最广泛的骂人用语之一。 “赤佬”是英语“CHEAT”（欺骗）和中文“佬”的混生词语，一个鲁迅时代最流行的洋泾浜俚语（隐语）。** Frompidgintocreoles(克里奥语): Pidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageasaresultofintermarriage,itisspokenathomeandlearnedbychildrenasamothertongue. 举例.French-basedHaitianCreole,EnglishbasedjamaicaCreole* Sociolinguistics社会语言学 定义 语言变体 双语* Bilingualism(双语现象) Diglossia(高低双语现象) Multilingualism（多语现象）* Bilingualism(双语现象):alinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers. 举例： Canada(FrenchandEnglish),Wales(WelshandEnglish) Diglossia(高低双语现象) Multilingualism（多语现象）* Bilingualism(双语现象) Diglossia(高低双语现象):alinguisticsituationinwhichtwovarietiesofalanguageexistsidebysidethroughoutthecommunity,witheachhavingadefiniteroletoplay. 举例： Switzerland: HighGermanasthestandard(public,official) SwissGermanasthevernacular(informal,daily) Multilingualism（多语现象）* Bilingualism(双语现象) Diglossia(高低双语现象) Multilingualism（多语现象）:alinguisticsituationinwhichmorethantwolanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers. 举例： Singapore(English,Chinese,Malay)* Bilingualism(双语现象):alinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers Diglossia(高低双语现象):alinguisticsituationinwhichtwovarietiesofalanguageexistsidebysidethroughoutthecommunity,witheachhavingadefiniteroletoplay Multilingualism（多语现象）:alinguisticsituationmorethantwovarietiesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers* 人类语言学AnthropologicalLinguistics 定义:studyoftherelationshipbetweencultureandlanguage 假说：Sapir-WhorfHypothesis(萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说)：structureofthelanguagepeopleuseinfluencesthewaytheythinkandbehave(简言之,语言影响人的思想行为)** Sapir-WhorfHypothesis EdwardSapir(1884-1939)andBenjaminLeeWhorf(1897-1941) Ourlanguagehelpsmouldourwayofthinkingand,consequently,differentlanguagesmayprobablyexpressspeakers’uniquewaysofunderstandingtheworld. Linguisticdeterminism:Lmaydetermineourthinkingpatterns. Linguisticrelativity:differentlanguagesofferpeopledifferentwaysofexpressingtheworldaround.** English:horseshoe French:feracheval——ironforhorse German:hufeisen——hoofiron TheEskimoshavecountlesswordsforsnow.TheArabs,forcamels.* 心理语言学Psycholinguistics:thestudyofthementalprocessoflanguagecomprehensionandproduction. 计算机语言学ComputationalLinguistics:studyoftheuseofcomputerstoprocessandproducehumanlanguage.*语言学理论流派* 考点：四大学派的代表人物及其理论名称* 1.FatherofModernLinguistics现代语言学之父 2.PragueSchool布拉格学派 3.LondonSchool伦敦学派 4.AmericanStructuralism美国结构主义 5.Transformative-GenerativeGrammar转换生成语法* 1.FatherofModernLinguistics现代语言学之父 Saussure索绪尔(瑞士)代表作 * Saussure’snewconcepts: LangueandParole(语言和言语) Signifierandsignified（能指和所指）* 2.PragueSchool布拉格学派：Stressedsynchroniclinguistics（强调共时语言学） N.Trubetzkoy(1890-1938)特鲁别茨柯依 J.Firbas(1921-2000)费尔巴斯**PragueSchoolPhonology N.Trubetzkoy’(特鲁别茨柯依)contributions: definedthesphereofphonologicalstudies,andgaveanaccuratedefinitionofthephoneme.** J.Firbas(费尔巴斯) FSP（functionalSentencePerspective,句子功能前景）：distributionofinformationinsentence CD（Communicativedynamism, 交际动力）isusedtomeasuretheinformationamountaparticularsentenceconstituentcontains**3.TheLondonSchool Malinowski(1884-1942)马林诺夫斯基 Firth(1890-1960)弗斯 Halliday(1925-)韩礼德 Allthreestressedtheimportanceofcontextofsituationandthesystemaspectoflanguage* 马林诺夫斯基费孝通王铭铭**3.TheLondonSchool Malinowski(1884-1942)马林诺夫斯基 Firth(1890-1960)弗斯 Halliday(1925-)韩礼德 Allthreestressedtheimportanceofcontextofsituationandthesystemaspectoflanguage** Halliday(韩礼德，1925-). Systematic-FunctionalGrammar(系统功能语法): systemicgrammar:internalrelationsinLasasystemnetwork,meaningpotential. functionalgrammar:Lasameansofsocialinteraction,usesorfunctionsoflanguageform.** 3.AmericanStructuralism MajorLinguists： Boas（博厄斯） Sapir（萨丕尔） Bloomfield（布龙菲尔德）* Sapir-Whorfhypothesis: thelanguageinfluencesthewayonethinksandbehave(语言影响人的思想行为)*5.Transformative-GenerativeGrammar转换生成语法 NOAMCHOMSKY乔姆斯基(1928-)Transformative-GenerativeGrammar转换生成语法Competenceandperformance语言能力和语言运用 **Phrasestructurerules SNPVP VPVNP NPDetN Vact,beat,catch,dive,… Nman,boy,book,flower,...*****************************************************************************************************************************************************