美国排华法案1882

BurlingameTreatyFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopediaJumpto:navigation,search Wikisourcehasoriginaltextrelatedtothisarticle:BurlingameTreatyTheBurlingameTreaty,alsoknownastheBurlingame-SewardTreatyof1868,betweentheUnitedStatesandChina,amendedtheTreatyofTientsinof1858andestablishedformalfriendlyrelationsbetweenthetwocountries,withtheUnitedStatesgrantingChinamostfavorednationstatus.ItwassignedatWashingtonin1868andratifiedatBeijingin1869.Thetreaty:·RecognizedChina'srightofeminentdomainoverallofitsterritory;·GaveChinatherighttoappointconsulsatportsintheUnitedStates,"whoshallenjoythesameprivilegesandimmunitiesasthoseenjoyedbytheconsulsofGreatBritainandRussia";·Providedthat"citizensoftheUnitedStatesinChinaofeveryreligiouspersuasionandChinesesubjectsintheUnitedStatesshallenjoyentirelibertyofconscienceandshallbeexemptfromalldisabilityorpersecutiononaccountoftheirreligiousfaithorworshipineithercountry";and·Grantedcertainprivilegestocitizensofeithercountryresidingintheother,theprivilegeofnaturalization,however,beingspecificallywithheld.Importantly,ChineseimmigrationtotheUnitedStateswasencouraged.OppositioninCongresstoChineseimmigrationledPresidentRutherfordB.HayestoauthorizeJamesBurrillAngelltorenegotiatethetreatyin1880.Thetreatywasamendedtosuspend,butnotprohibit,Chineseimmigration,whileconfirmingtheobligationoftheUnitedStatestoprotecttherightsofthoseimmigrantsalreadyarrived.[1]Thetreatywasreversedin1882bytheChineseExclusionAct.[edit]Seealso·AnsonBurlingame·Listoftreaties·TimelineofUnitedStatesdiplomatichistory·ChineseAmerican[edit]References1.^"AnsonBurlingame".ColumbiaEncyclopedia. [edit]Externallinks·TheTextoftheTreatyinEnglishandChinese(1868)·BurlingameTreaty(1868)Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Burlingame_Treaty&oldid=463045915"ChineseExclusionActFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopediaJumpto:navigation,searchThisarticleisabouttheformerU.S.law.ForthesimilarCanadianlaw,seeChineseImmigrationActof1923.ThefirstpageoftheChineseExclusionAct.TheChineseExclusionActwasaUnitedStatesfederallawsignedbyChesterA.ArthuronMay8,1882,followingrevisionsmadein1880totheBurlingameTreatyof1868.ThoserevisionsallowedtheU.S.tosuspendimmigration,andCongresssubsequentlyactedquicklytoimplementthesuspensionofChineseimmigration,abanthatwasintendedtolast10years.ThislawwasrepealedbytheMagnusonActonDecember17,1943. Contents [hide] ·1Background·2ChineseGoldRushinCalifornia·3TheAct·4Effectsandaftermath·5Repealandcurrentstatus·6Seealso·7References·8Externallinks[edit]BackgroundChineseimmigrantworkersbuildingtheTranscontinentalrailroad.Mainarticle:ChineseAmericanhistoryThefirstsignificantChineseimmigrationtotheUnitedStatesbeganwiththeCaliforniaGoldRushof1848-1855,andcontinuedwithsubsequentlargelaborprojects,suchasthebuildingoftheFirstTranscontinentalRailroad.Duringtheearlystagesofthegoldrush,whensurfacegoldwasplentiful,theChineseweretolerated,ifnotwell-received.[1]Asgoldbecamehardertofindandcompetitionincreased,animositytowardtheChineseandotherforeignersincreased.Afterbeingforciblydrivenfromthemines,mostChinesesettledinenclavesincities,mainlySanFrancisco,andtookuplowendwagelaborsuchasrestaurantworkandlaundryjusttoearnenoughtolive.WiththepostCivilWareconomyindeclinebythe1870s,anti-ChineseanimositybecamepoliticizedbylaborleaderDenisKearneyandhisWorkingman'sParty[2]aswellasbyCaliforniaGovernorJohnBigler,bothofwhomblamedChinese"coolies"fordepressedwagelevels.Anothersignificantanti-ChinesegrouporganizedinCaliforniaduringthissameerawastheSupremeOrderofCaucasianswithsome60chaptersstatewide.[citationneeded][edit]ChineseGoldRushinCaliforniaEarlyon,theCaliforniagovernmentdidnotwishtoexcludeChinesemigrantworkersfromimmigrationbecausetheyprovidedessentialtaxrevenuewhichhelpedfillthefiscalgapofCalifornia.[citationneeded]Onlylater,whentherewasenoughmoneydidthegovernmentceasetoopposeChineseexclusion.By1860theChinesewerethelargestimmigrantgroupinCalifornia.TheChineseworkersprovidedcheaplaboranddidnotuseanyofthegovernmentinfrastructure(schools,hospitals,etc.)becausetheChinesemigrantpopulationwaspredominantlymadeupofhealthymaleadults.[3]AstimepassedandmoreandmoreChinesemigrantsarrivedinCaliforniaviolencewouldoftenbreakoutincitiessuchasLosAngeles.By1878CongressdecidedtoactandpassedlegislationexcludingtheChinese,butthiswasvetoedbyPresidentHayes.California,initszealforexcludingtheChinese,declaredaholidayonMarch6,1881,inordertoholdwidespreaddemonstrationstosupporttheanti-Chineselegislation.OncetheChineseExclusionActwasfinallypassedin1882,CaliforniawentfurtherinitsdiscriminationagainsttheChinesebypassingvariouslawsthatwerelaterheldtobeunconstitutional.[4]AftertheactwaspassedmostChinesefamilieswerefacedwithadilemma:stayintheUnitedStatesaloneorgobacktoChinatoreunitewiththeirfamilies.[5]NewspapersaroundthecountryandespeciallyinCaliforniastartedtodiscreditandblametheChineseformostthings,e.g.,whiteunemployment.ThepolicealsodiscriminatedagainsttheChinesebyusingtheslightestopportunitytoarrestthem.AlthoughtherewaswidespreaddislikefortheChinese,somecapitalistsandentrepreneursresistedtheirexclusionbasedoneconomicfactors.[6][edit]TheActThefirstpageofatwentyonepageinterrogationtranscriptofYeeBingQuai.HeisinterrogatedbyInspectorCharlesEGoldingwithclerkMarionTLovettrecordingandDavidLeeinterpreting,June15,1938,inBoston,MA.TheChineseExclusionActwasoneofthemostsignificantrestrictionsonfreeimmigrationinU.S.history.TheActexcludedChinese"skilledandunskilledlaborersandChineseemployedinmining"fromenteringthecountryfortenyearsunderpenaltyofimprisonmentanddeportation.ManyChinesewererelentlesslybeatenjustbecauseoftheirrace.[7][8]ThefewChinesenon-laborerswhowishedtoimmigratehadtoobtaincertificationfromtheChinesegovernmentthattheywerequalifiedtoimmigrate,whichtendedtobedifficulttoprove.[8]Volpparguesthatthe"ChineseExclusionAct"isamisnomer,inthatitisassumedtobethestartingpointofChineseexclusionarylawsintheUnitedStates.Shesuggestsattendingtotheintersectionsofrace,gender,andU.S.citizenshipinordertobothunderstandtherestraintsofsuchahistoricaltendencyandmakevisibleChinesefemaleimmigrationexperiences,includingthePageActof1875.[9]TheActalsoaffectedAsianswhohadalreadysettledintheUnitedStates.AnyChinesewholefttheUnitedStateshadtoobtaincertificationsforreentry,andtheActmadeChineseimmigrantspermanentaliensbyexcludingthemfromU.S.citizenship.[7][8]AftertheAct'spassage,ChinesemenintheU.S.hadlittlechanceofeverreunitingwiththeirwives,orofstartingfamiliesintheirnewhomes.[7]Amendmentsmadein1884tightenedtheprovisionsthatallowedpreviousimmigrantstoleaveandreturn,andclarifiedthatthelawappliedtoethnicChineseregardlessoftheircountryoforigin.TheScottAct(1888)expandedupontheChineseExclusionAct,prohibitingreentryafterleavingtheU.S.TheActwasrenewedfortenyearsbythe1892GearyAct,andagainwithnoterminaldatein1902.[8]Whentheactwasextendedin1902,itrequired"eachChineseresidenttoregisterandobtainacertificateofresidence.Withoutacertificate,heorshefaceddeportation."[8]Between1882and1905,about10,000Chineseappealedagainstnegativeimmigrationdecisionstofederalcourt,usuallyviaapetitionforhabeascorpus.[10]Inmostofthesecases,thecourtsruledinfavorofthepetitioner.[10]Exceptincasesofbiasornegligence,thesepetitionswerebarredbyanactthatpassedCongressin1894andwasupheldbytheU.S.SupremeCourtinU.S.vsLemMoonSing(1895).InU.S.vsJuToy(1905),theU.S.SupremeCourtreaffirmedthattheportinspectorsandtheSecretaryofCommercehadfinalauthorityonwhocouldbeadmitted.JuToy'spetitionwasthusbarreddespitethefactthatthedistrictcourtfoundthathewasanAmericancitizen.TheSupremeCourtdeterminedthatrefusingentryataportdoesnotrequiredueprocessandislegallyequivalenttorefusingentryatalandcrossing.ThisrulingtriggeredabriefboycottofU.S.goodsinChina.OneofthecriticsoftheChineseExclusionActwastheanti-slavery/anti-imperialistRepublicanSenatorGeorgeFrisbieHoarofMassachusettswhodescribedtheActas"nothinglessthanthelegalizationofracialdiscrimination."[11]Thelawsweredrivenlargelybyracialconcerns;immigrationofpersonsofotherraceswasunlimitedduringthisperiod.[12]Ontheotherhand,manypeoplestronglysupportedtheChineseExclusionAct,includingtheKnightsofLabor,alaborunion,whosupporteditbecauseitbelievedthatindustrialistswereusingChineseworkersasawedgetokeepwageslow.[13]Amonglaborandleftistorganizations,theIndustrialWorkersoftheWorldwerethesoleexceptiontothispattern.TheIWWopenlyopposedtheChineseExclusionActfromitsinceptionin1905.[14][edit]EffectsandaftermathApoliticalcartoonfrom1882,showingaChinesemanbeingbarredentrytothe"GoldenGateofLiberty".Thecaptionreads,"Wemustdrawthelinesomewhere,youknow."CertificateofidentityissuedtoYeeWeeThingcertifyingthatheisthesonofaUScitizen,issuedNov.21,1916.ThiswasnecessaryforhisimmigrationfromChinatotheUnitedStates.Forallpracticalpurposes,theExclusionAct,alongwiththerestrictionsthatfollowedit,frozetheChinesecommunityinplacein1882,andpreventeditfromgrowingandassimilatingintoU.S.societyasEuropeanimmigrantgroupsdid.[7]LimitedimmigrationfromChinacontinueduntiltherepealoftheChineseExclusionActin1943.From1910to1940,theAngelIslandImmigrationStationonwhatisnowAngelIslandStateParkinSanFranciscoBayservedastheprocessingcenterformostofthe56,113ChineseimmigrantswhoarerecordedasimmigratingorreturningfromChina;upwardsof30%morewhoshowedupwerereturnedtoChina.Furthermore,afterthe1906SanFranciscoearthquake,whichdestroyedCityHallandtheHallofRecords,manyimmigrants(knownas"papersons")claimedthattheyhadfamilialtiestoresidentChinese-Americancitizens.Whethertheseweretrueornotcannotbeproven.TheChineseExclusionActgaverisetothefirstgreatwaveofcommercialhumansmuggling,anactivitythatlaterspreadtoincludeothernationalandethnicgroups.[15]Later,theImmigrationActof1924restrictedimmigrationevenfurther,excludingallclassesofChineseimmigrantsandextendingrestrictionstootherAsianimmigrantgroups.[7]Untiltheserestrictionswererelaxedinthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury,Chineseimmigrantswereforcedtolivealifeapart,andtobuildasocietyinwhichtheycouldsurviveontheirown(chinatown).[7]Furthermore,theChineseExclusionActdidnotaddresstheproblemsthatwhiteswerefacing;infact,theChinesewerequicklyandeagerlyreplacedbytheJapanese,whoassumedtheroleoftheChineseinsociety.UnliketheChinese,someJapanesewereevenabletoclimbtherungsofsocietybysettingupbusinessesorbecomingtruckfarmers.[16]However,theJapanesewerelatertargetedintheNationalOriginsActof1924,whichbannedimmigrationfromeastAsiaentirely.In1891theGovernmentofChinarefusedtoaccepttheU.S.senatorMrHenryW.BlairasU.S.MinistertoChinaduetohisabusiveremarksregardingChinaduringnegotiationoftheChineseExclusionAct.[17][edit]RepealandcurrentstatusTheChineseExclusionActwasrepealedbythe1943MagnusonAct,whichpermittedChinesenationalsalreadyresidinginthecountrytobecomenaturalizedcitizensandstophidingfromthethreatofdeportation.Italsoallowedanationalquotaof105Chineseimmigrantsperyear.LargescaleChineseimmigrationdidnotoccuruntilthepassageoftheImmigrationActof1965.Despitethefactthattheexclusionactwasrepealedin1943,thelawinCaliforniathatChinesepeoplewerenotallowedtomarrywhiteswasnotrepealeduntil1948.[18][19]Eventoday,althoughallitsconstituentsectionshavelongbeenrepealed,Chapter7ofTitle8oftheUnitedStatesCodeisheaded,"ExclusionofChinese."[20]Itistheonlychapterofthe15chaptersinTitle8(AliensandNationality)thatiscompletelyfocusedonaspecificnationalityorethnicgroup.In2011,theUSSenatepassedaresolutionapologisingforpastdiscriminatoryactionssuchasthisact.[edit]Seealso·ChineseExclusion·ChineseAmerican·ChineseAmericanhistory·ListofUnitedStatesimmigrationlegislation·UnitedStatesv.WongKimArk,whichheldthattheChineseExclusionActcouldnotoverrulethecitizenshipofthosebornintheU.S.toChineseparents·Chinesemassacreof1871·RockSpringsmassacre·Sinophobia·YellowPeril·WhiteAustraliapolicy·ChineseImmigrationAct,1923,ofCanada·NewZealandheadtax·Headtax(Canada)[edit]References1.^Norton,HenryK.(1924).TheStoryofCaliforniaFromtheEarliestDaystothePresent.Chicago:A.C.McClurg&Co..pp. 283–296.http://www.sfmuseum.net/hist6/chinhate.html. 2.^See,e.g.,http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5046/%7C3.^Kanazawa,Mark."Immigration,Exclusion,andTaxation:Anti-ChineseLegislationGoldRushinCalifornia".TheJournalofEconomicHistory,Vol.65,No.3(Sep.,2005),pp.779-805.Publishedby:CambridgeUniversityPressonbehalfoftheEconomicHistoryAssociation.4.^Cole,L.Cheryl."ChineseExclusion:TheCapitalistPerspectiveoftheSacramentoUnion,1850-1882".CaliforniaHistory,Vol.57,No.1,TheChineseinCalifornia(Spring,1978),pp.8-31.Publishedby:CaliforniaHistoricalSociety5.^Chew,KennethandLiu,John."HiddeninPlainSight:GlobalLaborForceExchangeintheChineseAmericanPopulation,1880-1940".PopulationandDevelopmentReview,Vol.30,No.1(Mar.,2004),pp.57-78.Publishedby:PopulationCouncil6.^Miller,Joaquin."TheChineseandtheExclusionAct".TheNorthAmericanReview,Vol.173,No.541(Dec.,1901),pp.782-789.Publishedby:UniversityofNorthernIowa7.^abcdef"Exclusion".LibraryofCongress.2003-09-01.http://memory.loc.gov/learn//features/immig/chinese6.html.Retrieved2010-01-25. 8.^abcdeusnews.com:ThePeople'sVote:ChineseExclusionAct(1882)9.^LetiVolpp"DivestingCitizenship:OnAsianAmericanHistoryandtheLossofCitizenshipThroughMarriage"TheRegentsoftheUniversityofCalifornia.UCLALawReview(2005).10.^abDaniel,Roger,"BookReview"11.^RogerDaniels,ComingtoAmerica,p271.12.^Chin,GabrielJ.,(1998)[[UniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles|UCLALawReviewvol.46,at1"Segregation'sLastStronghold:RaceDiscriminationandtheConstitutionalLawofImmigration"]13.^Kennedy,DavidM.Cohen,Lizabeth,Bailey,ThomasA.TheAmericanPageant.NewYork:HoughtonMifflinCompany,200214.^Choi,JenniferJungHee.TheRhetoricofInclusion:TheI.W.W.andAsianWorkers15.^Zhang,Sheldon(2007).Smugglingandtraffickinginhumanbeings:allroadsleadtoAmerica.GreenwoodPublishingGroup.p. 69.ISBN 9780275989514. 16.^AlanBrinkley'sAmericanHistory:ASurvey,12thEdition17.^E.Denza,CommentarytotheViennaConventiononDiplomaticRelations,ThirdEd.OxfordUniversityPress2008,p.5118.^Chin,Gabriel;Karthikeyan,Hrishi(2002).AsianLawJournalvol.9"PreservingRacialIdentity:PopulationPatternsandtheApplicationofAnti-MiscegenationStatutestoAsianAmericans,1910-1950"19.^SeePerezv.Sharp,32Cal.2d711(1948).20.^USCODE-TITLE8-ALIENSANDNATIONALITY·Bodenner,Chris."ChineseExclusionAct."Issues&ControversiesinAmericanHistory@FACTS.com.20Oct.2006.FactsOnFileNewsServices.3Nov.2007<http://www.2facts.com>.[edit]Externallinks Wikisourcehasseveraloriginaltextsrelatedto:ChineseExclusionAct WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedto:ChineseExclusionAct·ChineseExclusionAct·ChineseExclusionAct(1882)-OurDocuments·ExclusionActCaseFilesofYeeWeeThingandYeeBingQuai,two"PaperSons"·TheYungWingProjecthoststhememoirofoneoftheearliestnaturalizedChinesewhosecitizenshipwasrevokedforty-sixyearsafterhavingreceiveditasaresultoftheChineseExclusionAct.·AnAllegedWifeOneImmigrantintheChineseExclusionEra·CollectionofprimarysourcedocumentsrelatingtotheChineseExclusionAct,fromHarvardUniversity.·PrimarysourcedocumentsandimagesfromtheUniversityofCalifornia·TheRockyRoadtoLiberty:ADocumentedHistoryofChineseAmericanImmigrationandExclusion [show]·v··d··eChineseAmericantopics 美国参院通过议案为排华法案道歉    光明日报记者李盛明    美国国会于1882年颁布的排华法案中的主要条款如下:    一、任何企图通过船只进入美国的中国人,都要向海关移民官出示此法案之前列出的证明文件,否则将不准进入美国。任何在美国境内的中国人如被发现身份非法者,经美国法院裁决确为非法入境后,将经由总统签署命令驱逐回中国。    二、自此法案生效日期起,任何州法院或联邦法院不得给予中国人美国公民身份。若有法律与此法案相悖者,以此法案为准。　　    三、出现在此法案中的词组“中国劳工”,指一切熟练或非熟练的中国工人,以及一切被矿主雇用的中国人。    美国国会此后数次扩大这一法案的适用人群,将所有华裔包括在内,每次都对华裔作出愈加严格的限制,其中包括禁止华裔的配偶子女移民美国等。这一系列法案直至1943年才被废除,但美国国会此前从未就此正式示过歉意。光明日报华盛顿10月7日电(记者余晓葵)美国参议院6日晚以全票通过一项法案,为19世纪末、20世纪初的排华法案等歧视华人法律表达歉意。推动法案通过的华人领袖7日表示,这一法案通过为美国华埠了结了百年耻辱,带来了迟到的公正。    这一法案由参议员黛安·法因斯坦和斯科特·布朗等人联署提出。法案说,许多华人在19世纪末、20世纪初来到美国,为美国经济发展、西部开发作出了重大贡献,却遭受到种族歧视与暴力侵害,美国政府还通过排华法案等歧视性法律,对华人造成了不小的伤害。法案认为,这些法律与美国独立宣言中人人平等的理念不符，与美国宪法精神相违。对这些排斥华人的法律与其造成的不公正,参议院表示深深的歉意,并表示将致力于保护华人等少数族裔享有与其他美国国民相同的民权与宪法权利。    法案通过后,布朗表示,尽管道歉并不能补偿过去这些歧视性法律为华人带来的伤害,但承认过去犯下的错误仍然非常重要。法因斯坦此前说,她希望道歉法案能让人们了解过去那段历史,为受到排华法案伤害的华人家庭带来慰藉。    【链接】    美国华人反响    议案最早推动者之一、美国华人全国委员会主席薛海培７日对记者说，听到法案在参院通过的消息后他激动不已。他说，这一法案的通过为美国华埠了结了百年耻辱，带来了迟到的公正。他说，法案在参议院通过之后，下一步就是推动众议院版本的道歉议案通过。众议院版本的道歉议案由华裔女众议员赵美心联合众议员朱迪·比格特与麦克·科夫曼提交。薛海培希望能在明年５月前促成其通过。    薛海培认为，推动国会通过道歉议案只是这件事的第一步，下一步他还希望推动白宫方面对此作出表示，并在华裔社区开展长期的宣传教育活动，让华人了解自己祖先在美国的历史，体会其中的酸甜苦辣。（王丰丰杜静）    排华法案内容