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基础英语语法

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基础英语语法 5 Basic Grammar Skills UNIT 1 BASIC GRAMMAR SKILLS Structure 1.0 Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Using a Dictionary 1.3 A Guide to Basic Punctuation 1.3.1 Terminal Punctuation 1.3.1.1 Period ...
基础英语语法
5 Basic Grammar Skills UNIT 1 BASIC GRAMMAR SKILLS Structure 1.0 Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Using a Dictionary 1.3 A Guide to Basic Punctuation 1.3.1 Terminal Punctuation 1.3.1.1 Period 1.3.1.2 Question Mark 1.3.1.3 Exclamation Point 1.3.2 Sentence Punctuation 1.3.2.1 Comma 1.3.2.2 Semicolon 1.3.2.3 Colon 1.3.2.4 Apostrophe 1.4 Traditional Parts of Speech 1.5 Sentence Structure 1.5.1 Sentence Fragments 1.5.2 Run-On Sentences 1.6 Let Us Sum Up 1.7 Answers to Check Your Self Assessment Activities 1.8 Terminal Questions � 1.0 OBJECTIVES By the time you complete this Unit, you will be able to: • use a dictionary to help select appropriate words for your writing; • apply basic rules that describe when and where to use punctuation such as periods; questions marks, commas, semicolons, colons, and apostrophes; • identify the parts of speech used in sentences, including nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections; • identify sentence fragments and change them into complete sentences; and • use several techniques to construct complete sentences from run-on sentences. � 1.1 INTRODUCTION Each person plays a variety of roles in life. You are a friend, a mate, a colleague, an employee, a supervisor, and a representative of your organisation. You communicate with diverse groups such as salespeople, suppliers, government representatives, co- workers, and community groups. Much of your success in dealing with other people depends on your choice of words. You must choose words that other people will understand. Your words must capture their interest while reflecting your sincerity and objectivity. Equally important, you must make sure that you are using words correctly. 6 Communication Skills for Business � In this section, you will learn some simple techniques for expanding your vocabulary. Learning new words allows you to add detail to your documents and speech. Using the correct word also makes your writing concise and easy to follow. 1.2 USING A DICTIONARY A dictionary provides you with a wealth of information to help you choose, use, and spell the right word. When in doubt about what word to use or the meaning of a word that you are reading, look it up in your dictionary. A good dictionary gives the following information on a word (usually in this order): 1 The word correctly spelled and with hyphens to show syllable breaks. 2 The pronunciation (definitions of the pronunciation symbols can usually be found at the front of the dictionary). 3 The part of speech that the word represents (i.e., noun, verb, adjective, adverb, etc.). 4 Spelling of alternate forms if the word can be grammatically changed by adding letters at the end (e.g., -ed, -ing, etc.). 5 Definitions of the word (numbered if there is more than one definition). The first definition is generally the most common. 6 The origin of the word (the etymology)—Latin (L), Greek (G), French (Fr), etc. 7 Other information on synonyms (words of roughly similar meaning), antonyms (words of roughly opposite meaning), usage, and alternative spellings. Here is an example of an entry in a dictionary: Dictionaries usually have full explanations of how to use the abbreviations and symbols in their front pages. Keep a dictionary close by when you write or read any article. Looking up the meaning of words can expand your vocabulary quickly. Use your dictionary to do the following Self Assessment Activities. � Self Assessment Activity 1 You are editing some reports written by a rather wordy writer, who likes to show off his large vocabulary. The only problem is that hardly anyone can understand some of the words he uses. So you need to make the sentences as clear as possible, and this means changing some of the words. Here are some of the wordy extracts. Find simpler, more familiar words to replace the words in italics. When you are done, check your answers against the key provided at the end of this Unit. Con-sult (kan sult) v. 1. to seek information or advice from; refer to: Consult a dictionary for the meaning of a word. 2. to exchange ideas; talk things over: He is consulting with his lawyer. 3. to take into consideration; have regard for: A good ruler consults the interests and feeling of his people. [< L consultare < consulere take counsel, consult] Syn. 2. Consult, confer = to talk something over with someone in order to make a decision. Consult = to talk over something of importance with another or others who are in a position to give wise advice: He decided to consult with his attorney before buying the property. Confer = to exchange ideas, opinions, or information with another, usually as equals: The manager conferred with the committee of employees. 7 Basic Grammar Skills 1 He is far too garrulous to work in such a confidential position. …………………………………………………………………………………………. .………………………………………………………………………………………… 2 Action in this case should be expeditious. …………………………………………………………………………………………. .………………………………………………………………………………………… 3 It should be illegal to hydrate the area during the summer. …………………………………………………………………………………………. .………………………………………………………………………………………… 4 In my estimation, this politician is impervious to harsh criticism. …………………………………………………………………………………………. .………………………………………………………………………………………… 5 It’s ridiculous to ask representatives from across the country to convene for just three hours. …………………………………………………………………………………………. .………………………………………………………………………………………… 6 I have seen intimations of his being the right person for the job. ……………………………………………………………………………………….… ………………………………………………………………………………………… � Self Assessment Activity 2 Determine what the following one-liners are really saying. In their current form, the words are correct but hide the meaning. Replace each sentence with one that can be clearly understood. 1 Members of an avian species of identical plumage congregate. …………………………………………………………………………………………. .………………………………………………………………………………………… 2 It is fruitless to become lachrymose over precipitately departed lacteal fluid. …………………………………………………………………………………………. .………………………………………………………………………………………… 3 Neophyte’s serendipity. …………………………………………………………………………………………. .………………………………………………………………………………………… 4 Pulchritude possesses solely cutaneous profundity. …………………………………………………………………………………………. .………………………………………………………………………………………… 5 The stylus is more potent than the claymore. …………………………………………………………………………………………. .………………………………………………………………………………………… 6 Scintillate, scintillate asteroid minific. …………………………………………………………………………………………. .………………………………………………………………………………………… 8 Communication Skills for Business � � � � What you have just done in this Self Assessment Activity is very important in writing. Your main task when you write is to be understood—to communicate. You must use familiar, everyday words that everyone should be able to understand. Do not think that you have to impress people with complicated words and phrases. In the next section, you will review the key punctuation marks that help to clarify written ideas, add emphasis, and link thoughts together. 1.3 A GUIDE TO BASIC PUNCTUATION The following section provides some simple rules to follow when using common punctuation such as periods, question marks, exclamation points, commas, semicolons, colons, and apostrophes. English grammar has many more rules for other punctuation not covered in this section. Parentheses, quotation marks, hyphens, dashes, and ellipses are all part of the punctuation rules that you may come across in English grammar books. The following is not intended to be a complete English grammar course. 1.3.1 Terminal Punctuation This section will cover the basic punctuation most commonly used to end sentences in business writing. 1.3.1.1 Period A period is used to indicate the end of a sentence. The sentence is either declarative (makes a statement) or imperative (the implied subject is “you”). Examples: The three boys waited for their mother. (a declarative sentence) Wait there. (an imperative sentence; note that you can insert the subject “you” in this command so that it reads “You wait there.”) Periods are not used at the end of sentences within sentences. Examples: The storm (I caught a glimpse through the curtain) was starting to approach. Mary’s reply, “I do not want to go,” was expected. 1.3.1.2 Question Mark The question mark is used to identify a query (an interrogative sentence). These sentences usually start with who, what, where, when, why, or how. Examples: Who will represent the poor? How do I complete this report without the correct information? When can you get me the information? A question mark should be used at the end of an element that is part of a sentence. Examples: “How can the two women be reconciled?” was the question on everyone’s mind. “What for?” he wondered. (not: “What for,” he wondered?) As he asked himself, “How am I going to pay for this?” he noticed a rupee on the ground. 9 Basic Grammar Skills � � 1.3.1.3 Exclamation Point An exclamation point is used to note an emphatic remark. Remember, it should be used sparingly. Used too often, it loses its effect on a reader. Examples: Look out! Your comment certainly lacked tact! Suddenly, the street child looked as if all were lost! In most business writing you will be making statements of fact, so you will use the period. To be more effective in writing a fact, you will need to join your thoughts together or separate them to make the meaning clear. The next section shows the simplest method to do this using punctuation. 1.3.2 Sentence Punctuation ���� 1.3.2.1 Comma The comma is by far the hardest punctuation mark to use correctly. Do not insert a comma merely because the sentence is long and you feel there ought to be a comma somewhere. Learn where a comma is required, and only use one when you know it is needed. Commas are used when: 1 Two sentences are joined together by a co-ordinating conjunction. 2 An introductory clause, phrase, or word precedes the sentence. 3 Three or more words, phrases, or clauses are written in a series. 4 A sentence is interrupted by a clause, phrase, or word that is not part of the sentence structure. 5 A series of coordinated adjectives describes the same noun. 6 With places, addresses, dates, and titles. 7 A sentence introduces a quotation. The following pages contain fuller explanation and examples of these rules for using commas. 1 Two sentences are joined together by a co-ordinating conjunction. Use commas to separate two main clauses in a compound sentence when they are joined by one of the seven co-ordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet). Examples: Mary wrote the novel, and Julie edited it. The house burned to the ground, but the fire station was not notified. 2 An introductory clause, phrase, or word should be followed by a comma. Common introductory words that should be followed by a comma include yes, however, and well. Introductory clauses that start with certain words (including: after, although, as, because, if, since, when, while) should also be followed by a comma. Many introductory phrases require a comma. However, prepositional phrases of less than five words usually do not require a comma unless it is needed for clarity. Examples: When you have completed the progress report, we will discuss the project in Delhi. Since you insist, please make the flight arrangements yourself. 10 Communication Skills for Business If you insist on making the flight arrangements, you will need a purchase order. After a long and heated discussion, the board voted in favour of the development. In the meantime I will order the spare parts. (Here the reader can see the introduction without the help of a comma because it is so short.) 3 Use commas with and or or to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series. Examples: The report was clear, concise, complete, and correct. Required skills are comprehension, business math, word processing, or related computer skills. He agreed to follow instructions, train the student, write regular progress reports, and live on site. She brought up three children, ran a convenience store, attended fitness class three times a week, and took regular correspondence courses. 4 Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to separate a clause, phrase, or word from the rest of the sentence. These words are separated because they do not grammatically belong to the sentence, and are not essential to the meaning. Considering the following questions may help you to decide whether the clause, phrase, or word is essential. • If you leave it out, does the meaning of the sentence stay the same? • Does it interrupt the grammatical flow of the sentence? • If you move it somewhere else in the sentence, does the sentence still make sense? If the answer to one or more of these questions is yes then the clause, phrase, or word is not essential and should be separated with a pair of commas. Examples: You can, without a doubt, use it all year round. Frogs, for example, are eaten in France. He will, however, be expected to attend committee meetings. The manager, who always wore a blue suit, was asked to represent our committee at the public meeting. Do not use commas with restrictive modifiers, which are essential to the meaning of the sentence. That clauses after nouns are always essential. Examples: My sister who lives in Delhi is older than my sister who lives in Mumbai. (Take away the essential who clauses, and the sentence says “my sister is older than my sister”!) The report that is written in Hindi contains more information than the report that is written in English. The girl, who is only thirteen, works as a secretary. (Take away the non-essential who clause, and the sentence still makes sense.) 5 Use commas to separate a series of coordinated adjectives describing the same noun. To determine if adjectives are coordinated, try asking these questions: • Can you change the order of the adjectives? • Can you write and between the adjectives? 11 Basic Grammar Skills If you can do either and the sentence still makes sense then the adjectives are coordinated and require a comma. Examples: He usually wore a white linen suit. (not coordinated) She is a friendly, happy person. (coordinated) 6 Commas must be used to separate places and addresses (except between the street name and number), parts of dates (except between the month and day), and titles that follow a name. Examples: I sent the package from Camden, NJ to New Delhi, India. On April 16, 1945, the Red Army began the battle to liberate Berlin. Dr. Robert Atkins, MD, researched effects of the “low-carb” diet 7 Use a comma to introduce a quotation. Examples: “What,” Manju asked, “do you expect me to do about it?” He replied, “I do not know, but something must be done!” � Self Assessment Activity 3 Add commas as needed in the sentences below. If the sentence is correct, check the box to the right of the sentence. 1. He left the scene of the accident and tried to forget that it had happened. 2. Oil which is lighter than water rises to the surface. 3. Mrs. Sharma was an attractive gracious lady. 4. Nice is a word with many meanings and some of them are contradictory. 5. The contractor testified that the house was completed and that the work had been done properly. 6. Some people refuse to go to the zoo because of pity for creatures that must live in small cages. 7. Taxicabs that are dirty are illegal in some cities. 8. The closet contained worn clothes old shoes and dirty hats. 9. The uninvited guest wore a dark blue tweed suit. 10. After surviving this ordeal the sailor felt relieved. 11. Shakespeare’s early plays I believe stand the test of time. 12. September 11 2001 will never be forgotten. 13. Write the editor of the National India Report 2041 Dr. Prasad Road New Delhi 100-1100. 14. He replied “I have no idea what you mean.” 15. After a good washing and grooming the pup looked like a new dog. 16. Because of their opposition to institutions that force creatures to live in captivity some people refuse to go to the zoo. 17. Men who are bald are frequently the ones who are the most authoritative on the subject of baldness. 18. Vests which were once popular have been out of vogue for several years. 12 Communication Skills for Business � Self Assessment Activity 4 Place commas where appropriate in the following sentences. 1 There was no question that John’s painting a huge colourful and ugly mural was the worst entry in the art exhibit. 2 Werner von Braun Willy Ley and Edward Teller noted authorities in the field of rocket development have done much to guide the missile programme of the United States. 3 Mr. Kapur’s ability to say the wrong thing at the wrong time is I believe amazing. 4 Running around the house the dog was abruptly stopped by a fence. 5 If the opposition should win our candidate would never have any political future. 6 Gracefully lightly and daintily the ballerina moved across the stage. 7 Glamour the women’s fashion magazine recently incorporated with Charm another fashion journal. 8 Joe was born on May 7 1955 and his best friend was born exactly two months later on July 7 1955. 9 Mr. and Mrs. Kwon my parents’ best friends sat in front of us at the football game. 10 On November 11 1918 the armistice ending World War I was signed. 11 Wow! The football match that was played this afternoon was amazing! 12 So if you are so interested in this project why are you not writing the report? 13 What is the best way to convince our wealthy patron to support our new learning centre? 1.3.2.2 Semicolon The semicolon is one of the most misused punctuation marks. This is because many people do not understand sentence structure. You will look at sentence structure in the next section of this Unit. 1 Use a semicolon to separate main clauses not joined by co-ordinating conjunctions. Co-ordinating conjunctions are the words and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet. Examples: A manager must be decisive and he cannot hesitate. Replacing the and with a semicolon the sentence becomes: A manager must be decisive; he cannot hesitate. A report is due but the information is not quite ready. A report is due; the information is not quite ready. (Note that you can replace the co-ordinating conjunction but between the two main clauses with the semicolon.) 2 Use a semicolon before an adverb that joins two main clauses. This is called a conjunctive adverb. Examples (the conjunctive adverbs are in italics): She made a great effort to persuade them to join; nevertheless, they declined. He wrote a plea for more funding; however, the politicians did not listen. � 13 Basic Grammar Skills 3 Use semicolons to separate the elements in a series that already contains commas. Example: The speeches were made by Ms. Reddy, the director; Mr. Kaul, the treasurer; and Mr. Dutt, the assistant. Note: We have thr
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