英美背景文化

英美文化背景知识 Education in Britain and The US In Britain all children have to go to school between the ages of 5 and 16. In the US children must go to school from the age of 6 to between the ages of 14 and 16, depending on the state they live in. Subject In England and Wales the subjects taught in schools are laid down by the National Curriculum(课程), which was introduced in 1988 and sets out(制定) in detail the subjects that children should study and the levels of achievement they should reach by the ages of 7, 11, 14 and 16, when they are tested. The National Curriculum does not apply in Scotland, where each school decides what subjects it will teach. In the US the subjects taught are decided by national and local governments. Whereas British schools usually have prayers(祈祷) and religious(宗教的) instruction, American schools are not allowed to include prayers or to teach particular religious beliefs(信仰). Examinations At 16 students in England and Wales take GCSE examinations. These examinations are taken by students of all levels of ability in any of a range of subjects and may involve a final examination, an assessment(评价) of work done during the two year course, or both of these things. At 18 some students taken A-level examinations, usually in not more than 3 subjects. It is necessary to have A-levels in order to go to a university or polytechnic(综合技术大学). In Scotland students take the SCE examinations. A year later, they can take examinations called HIGHS, after which they can either go straight to a university or spend a further year at school and take the Certificate(证) of Sixth Year Studies. In Scotland the university system is different to that in England and Wales. Courses usually last four years rather than three and students study a larger number of subjects as part of their degree. In the US school examinations are not as important as they are in Britain. Students in High Schools do have exams at the end of their last two years, but these final exams are considered along with the work that the students have done during the school years. Social Events and Ceremonies(仪式) In American high schools there is a formal ceremony for Graduation (=completion of high school). Students wear a special cap and gown and receive a diploma(文凭) from the head of the school. Students often buy a class ring to ear, and a yearbook, containing pictures of their friends and teachers. There are also special social events at American schools. Sports events are popular, and cheer leaders lead the school in supporting the school team and singing the school song. At the end of their junior year, at age 17 or 18, students held in the evening. The girls wear long evening dresses and the boys wear TUXEDOS. In Britain, there are no formal dances or social occasions(场合) associated(和...有关) with school life. Some schools have SPEECH DAY at the end of the school year when prizes are given to the best students and speeches are made by the head teacher and sometimes an invited guest. However, in many British schools students and teachers organize(组织) informal dances for the older students. Government in Britain and the US Government in Britain National government The center of government in Britain is PARLIAMENT(国会), which makes all the important laws for the country about crimes and punishment, taxation(犯罪), etc. Parliament is made up of the House of Commons, the House of Lords and the monarch(贵族). The Houses of Parliament are in Westminster in London and sometimes “Westminster” itself is used to mean Parliament. The House of commons (or the Commons) is the lower but more powerful of the two Houses. It has 650 elected members, called Members of Parliament or MPs, each representing people in a particular area or constituency. The House of Lords (the Lords) is the higher but less powerful of the two Houses. It has over 1,000 members, none of whom is elected. These members include: people who have titles like Lord or Viscount(子爵) which have been passed down to them on the death of their father (hereditary peers(世袭贵族)); people who are given titles as a reward for their long service in public life, but whose children do not INHERIT(继承) their title (life peers); and some important leaders of the Church of England (Archbishops(大主教) and Bishops(主教)). The government brings BILL (=suggested laws) to the House of Commons, which are discussed by MPs. The bills then go to the House of Lords to be discussed. The House of Lords can suggest changes to a bill, but does not have the power to reject it (=refuse permission for it to be passed). When bills come back to the Commons, MPs vote on them and if they are passed they are signed by the monarch and become Acts of Parliament At present England, Scotland, Wales, and N Ireland are all governed by Parliament in Westminster. In N Ireland the political parties are different but their MPs still go to the House of Commons. In Scotland there is a lot of discussion about whether Scotland should have some separate or partly separate form of government. The same is true in Wales Local government Local government is Britain, also known as Councils, can make small laws (bylaws) which only apply in their area, but these are usually about small, local matters. For instance, they may be about fines that will be made for people who park in certain streets. Councils are paid for by local taxes and also by an amount of money given to them each year by the national government. Their main job is the organizing and providing of local services, e.g. hospitals, school, libraries, public transport, street-cleaning, etc. They are also responsible for setting the amount of local tax that people must pay and for collecting this tax. Local councils(议会) are elected by people within each town, city, or country area. The people who are elected, known as councilors, usually represent one of the national political parties, but are often elected because of their policies on local issues(问) rather than the national policies of their party. Government in the US All levels of government in the US (federal(联邦), state, and local) are elected by the people of the country. Federal government The constitution of the US specifically limits the power of the federal (=national) government mainly to defence(国防), foreign affairs, printing money, controlling trade and relations between the states, and protecting human rights. The federal government is make up of the CONGRESS(国会), the President, and the Supreme Count(最高法院). Congress Congress, the central law-making body in the US, is made up of the House of Representatives and the Senate. The House of Representatives is the lower but more important of the two houses of Congress. It has 435 members, called Representatives or Congressmen/Congresswomen elected by their state. The member of Representative(代) for each state depends on the size of the population of the state, with each state having at least one Representative. The Senate is the higher but less powerful of the two houses of Congress. It has 100 members, called Senators(参议院), elected by their state. Each state has two Senators. Congress decides whether a BILL (suggested law) becomes law. If the Senate and the House of Representative both agree to a bill, the President is asked to agree. The President can veto(=say no to) the bill(议案), but Congress can still make it a law if 2/3 of the members of each house agree to it. State government State government has the greatest influence in people’s daily lives. Each state has its own written Constitution(宪法) (set of fixed law), and among the state there are sometimes great differences in law on matters such as property, crime, health, and education. The highest elected official of each state is the Governor. Each state also has one or two elected lawmaking bodies (state Legislature) whose members represent the various parts of the state. Local government Local government concerns laws made at the town, city or county level. These laws are usually limited to a small area and concern such thing as traffic, where and when alcoholic drinks can be sold, or keeping animals. The highest elected official of a town or city Council. Every law at every level of government must be in agreement with(一致) the United States constitution. Any citizen who thinks he or she has not been given their rights under the law may argue their case through all the courts up to the Supreme Court (the final Court of Appeal in the US) if necessary, and any law which is found not in agreement with the constitution (unconstitutional) cannot be kept in force Newspapers in Britain and the US Newspapers in Britain National and local papers In Britain there are 11 national daily newspapers and most people read one of them every day. There are two kinds of newspaper. One is large in size and has many detailed articles about national and international events. These newspapers are called the serious papers or the quality papers. The other kind, called the tabloids is smaller in size, have more pictures, often in colour, and shorter articles, often about less important events or about the private lives of well-know people. Although some people disapprove(反对) of the tabloids(小报), more people buy them than buy the serious newspaper. The Sun, for example, which is a tabloid, is the biggest-selling newspaper in Britain. People who disapprove of the tabloids very strongly sometimes call them the Gutter Press. There are daily or weekly newspapers in all parts of Britain which cover local news as well as some national and international stories. Local papers give information about films, concerts, and other things that are happening in the local neighborhood, including, for example, information about local people who have been married or died recently. National papers generally give information about film, concerts and other events happening in London, In Scotland, many people read the Glasgow Herald or the Scotsman and there are Scottish Editions of the tabloids. There also many free local newspapers which are delivered to people’s homes whether they ask for them or not. These contain a lot of advertisements(广告) and also some news. Politics Most national newspapers in Britain express a political opinion and people choose the newspaper that they read according to their own political beliefs. Most of the newspapers are right-wing. These are the Daily Telegraph(serious newspaper), the Daily express, Daily Mail, Daily Star, the Sun and Today(all tabloids). Of the other serious newspapers, The Times, the oldest newspaper in Britain, did not formerly have one strong political view but it is now more right-wing. The Guardian is slightly left-wing, the Independent is centre and the Financial(金融) with political issues, but reports on business and financial news. The Daily Mirror(tabloid) is left-wing. Daily and Sunday newspapers Daily newspapers are published on every day of the week except Sunday. Sunday newspapers are larger than daily newspapers, often having 2 or 3 sections. There is also other a magazine, called the colour supplement(增刊). All the Sunday newspapers are national Serious newspapers include the Observer(which is slightly left-wing), the Sunday Times, the Sunday Telegraph and the Independent on Sunday, the Sunday Mirror, the Sunday Express, the News of the World and the Sunday Sport which is considered to lack much serious information. Newspapers in The US National and local newspapers There are more than 1500 daily newspapers in the US. Each one is usually sold only in one part of the country, e.g. in a city, but they cover national and international news. In larger cities there is often more than one newspaper and the different ones express different political opinions. Some newspapers are sold in nearly all parts of the US. E.g. USA today and the National edition of the New York Times. Two other newspapers, the Los Angeles Times and the Washington Post are know and respected all over the US but cannot be bought everywhere. Other important newspapers are: the Boston Globe, sold in New England, the Chicago Tribune, sold in the Midwest, the Christian Science Monitor and USA Today, both sold nationally, and the Washington Post on the East Coast. There are also weekly newspapers in all parts of the US which cover local news, such as what is happening in the local neighborhood(地方). Fewer people read these than read the daily newspapers. Daily and Sunday newspapers Daily newspapers are published on every day of the week except Sunday. Sunday newspapers are very big, often having several separate parts. They contain many longer articles and a lot of advertisements. Each section deals with a different subject. E.g. national and international news, sport, travel, etc. One section, the classifieds(分类广告) has advertisements for jobs and things for sale. Another section is called the funnies. There is often also a magazine which is in color. Alternative newspapers In the 1960s a group of newspapers began to appear that were later called in “alternative press”. They expressed extreme(极端的) political opinions, especially left-wing opinion. Many of the newspapers which were part of this movement, such as the Village Voice in New York or the Reader in Chicago, are less extreme today and more widely read. Law in Britain and the US In both Britain and the US, when a person is accused of a rime it must be shown that they are guilty "beyond reasonable doubt". A person is always innocent(无罪) in the eyes of the law until they have been proved to be guilty by a court they can sometimes ask for permission to APPEAL(上诉) to a higher court in the hope that it will change this decision. Criminal law in England and Wales When someone is arrested (ARREST) by the police, a MAGISTRATE (=an official who judges cases in some types of courts) decides whether there is enough EVIDENCE(证据) against the person for the case to go to court. If there is enough evidence and the case is a serious one, the person accused(控告) of the crime (called 'the accused(被告)') is sent to a CROWN COURT for a TRIAL with a JUDGE and JURY (=12 members of the public who have to decide if the accused is guilty(有罪的), then the judge decides the SENTENCE(判决) (2) (=punishment). If there is enough evidence against the accused but the crime is not a serious one (for example a traffic offence) then the case is heard in a MAGISTRATES COURT. If found guilty in the Crown Court the accused may apply to(请求) the COURT OF APPEAL (Criminal Division) where he or she will be heard by a judge. Sometimes a HIGH COURT judge from the Queen's Bench Division assists in dealing with criminal matters in the Court of Appeal or Crown Court. Criminal law in Northern Ireland In Northern Ireland, as in England and Wales, someone accused of a crime may be tried in a Magistrates' Court or a Crown Court depending on how serious the crime is. Appeals from the Crown Court are heard in the Northern Ireland Court of Appeal. Criminal law in Scotland Scotland has a separate court system. After a person is arrested by the police, an official called the PROCURATOR FISCAL is in charge of deciding whether there is enough evidence against the accused for a trial. If there is enough evidence and the crime is a very serious one, the accused is sent to the HIGH COURT OF JUSTICIARY where there is a judge and jury(陪审团) (in Scotland there are 15 people on a jury). If there is enough evidence but the crime is a less serious one, the case is heard in a SHERIFF COURT (The sheriff is a trained lawyer who acts as a judge). Appeals from the Sheriff Court go to the High Court of Justiciary. Criminal law in the US The US has tow separate court systems. In general terms STATE COURTS are used when someone has done something against the laws of CONSTITUTION of a particular State. FEDERAL COURTS deal with cases to do with the laws and Constitution of the United States as whole. Federal courts also hear cases where the US Government is one of the sides involved(介入). Cases for crimes which are not serious are likely to be heard in state courts. Serious crimes may be tried in wither state courts of federal courts depending on the situation, for example cases where a crime has taken place in another state are often heard in federal courts. After a person has been arrested a magistrate(地方官员), or in some cases a GRAND JURY made up of between 16 and 23 citizens, decides whether they should go to trial. If there is enough evidence for a trial the accused goes to court and has to state whether he/she is guilty or not guilty of the crime. If they say they are not guilty they are sent to trial with a judge and jury (of 16 or 20 citizens) in either a State or COUNTY COURT or, in federal cases, a DISTRICT COURT. If the accused is found guilty they may have the fight to appeal to a higher court, as shown below. The final court of appeal in the US federal system and for some cases in the state courts is the US SUPREME COURT. It is made up of a CHIEF JUSTICE and eight ASSOCIATES. The accused does not have the fight to be heard by the Supremes Court, but the Supreme Court decides which cases it will hear. Holiday in Britain and the USPaid Holiday People in the US get 2 weeks a year paid vacation (holiday) form their job. Most British people have four or five weeks paid holiday a year. Americans often complain that tow weeks is not enough holiday, especially when they hear about the longer holidays that Europeans get. In addition, there are 8 days in each country, which are public holidays (the British call Bank Holiday) and many of these fall on a Monday giving people a long weekend. In Britain, so many people drive to another part of the country, especially the coast, on Bank Holiday weekends that there are serious traffic jams, which may stretch(长达) for many miles. Popular Holiday Places With the US, outdoor vacations are popular, for example at the Grand Canyon or Yosemite or Yellowstone or the national parks or forests. Yong people may go walking or camping in the mountains. Many people have capers or small trailer(拖车) in which to travel, or if they are in a car, they may stay at Motels on the journey Disneyland and Disneyworld are also popular and people can to skiing in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, Wyoming and Montana. It is also very common to use vacations to visit relatives who may live in states a long distance away. Some children go to summer camp for a holiday during the summer vacation form school, where they do special activities, such as sports or crafts. When Americans want a holiday for sun and rest, they usually go to Florida, Hawaii, Mexico or the Caribbean. They may go to Europe for culture, for example, to see art, plays, and places of historic interest. In Britain, many people like to go to the seaside for holidays. There are places near the sea, such as Blackpool, Scarborough and Bournemouth, where there is plenty to do even if it rains. In a traditional British seaside holiday, the children can watch a Punch and Judy Show, eat candy floss and rock (=sweet) and make sandcastles, while older people can hire a deckchair to sit on the beach. People also like to go to go the country, especially to walk, in places like Scotland, Wales and the Lake District. When the British go abroad they usually want to go somewhere warm. Spain and 'Spanish islands of Majorca and Ibiza are popular as are other places in southern Europe. For skiing, people often go to the Alps. Medicine in Britain and American Medicine in Britain In Britain there is a National Health Service (NHS) which is paid for by taxes and National Insurance(保险), and in general people do not have to pay for medical treatment. Every person is registered with a doctor in their local area, know as general practitioner or GP. This means that their name is on the GP's list, and they may make an appointment to see the doctor or may call t