Unit7西方文化导论

U7_mainGetStartedTextStudySupplementaryResourcesGetStarted_mainGetStartedGetStarted1.AGeneralIntroduction2.FocusInGetStarted_1.1GetStartedGetStarted_1.2GetStartedTheEnlightenment,aperiodinEuropeanhistory,occurredduringthe18thcentury.ThisperiodisalsoknownastheAgeofReason.TheEnlightenmentwasatimeofawakeningofpolitical,social,andeconomicthought.TheideasoftheEnlightenmentoriginatedinFranceandeventuallyspreadthroughoutmuchofEuropeandintotheNorthAmericancoloniesofBritain.TheseideashelpedlaythephilosophicalfoundationsfortheAmericanandFrenchrevolutions.TheEnlightenmentdevelopedoutoftheworksof17th-centurythinkerssuchasIsaacNewton,RenéDescartes,andJohnLocke.AbeliefinthesupremacyofreasonwasthechiefGetStarted_1.3GetStartedcharacteristicoftheEnlightenment.ThinkersoftheEnlightenmentbelievedthatthroughtheuseofreason,peoplecouldlearnhumanity’struenatureandusethisknowledgetoestablishaperfectsociety.AnotherhallmarkoftheEnlightenmentwasanenduringbeliefinthescientificmethod,rationalism,andtheexistenceofunchangeablenaturallaws.ManyofthewritingsoftheEnlightenmentchallengedtheacceptedpoliticalideasandreligiousbeliefsofthetime,includingtheconceptthatmonarchsreceivetheirrighttoruledirectlyfromGod.GetStarted_1.4GetStartedTheforemostfiguresintheEnlightenmentwereagroupofFrenchthinkersknownasphilosophers.Thepreeminentmemberofthisgroupwasthewriter,historian,andpoetVoltaire.HeemergedastheEnlightenment’schiefcriticofcontemporarycultureandreligion.AnotherimportantmemberofthisgroupwasJeanJacquesRousseau,whosewritingsgreatlyinfluencedthepoliticalthinkingofthetime.AlsoinfluentialwerethewritingsofCharles,BarondeMontesquieu,whochallengedtheideaofrulebyamonarchandchampionedindividualfreedom.ThephilosopherDenisDiderot,incollaborationwithJeanD’Alembert,plannedandeditedamultivolumeencyclopediadesignedtoincludeallrealmsofknowledge.Manyoftheentrieswerewrittenbyotherphilosophies.GetStarted_1.5GetStartedItwasundersuchpolitical,economicandintellectualcircumstancesthattheEnlightenmentbegantobeseeninFranceasanunprecedentedlyintellectualandculturalmovement.ItsinfluencewastobeperceivedlaterintheFrenchRevolution,theAmericanWarofIndependence,andeveninChina’sMay4thMovementofNewCultureintheearlyyearsofthe20thcentury.GetStarted_2.1GetStartedTogetabriefviewofthesocialandtheologicalbackgroundoftheEnlightenmentTogettoknowmajorrepresentativefiguresoftheEnlightenmentandtheirideasTounderstandthefeaturesoftheEnlightenmentanditssignificanceTextStudy_mainTextStudyTextStudyI.BackgroundII.EmpiricistInfluencesfromBritainIII.RepresentativeFiguresoftheEnlightenmentandTheirIdeasIV.LiteratureduringtheEnlightenmentV.AReflectionontheEnlightenmentandItsSignificanceTheEnlightenmentisgenerallyagreedtohaveoriginatedinFrance.ItwasduetothefactthatFrancemetwithaperiodofdeclineafteritsnationalprosperityduringthereignofLouisXIV,whichwasdemonstratedbythesharpeningclassclashesandsocialcrisesresultingfromthedeterioratingpoliticalandeconomicconditions.Internationally,FrancealsosufferedaseriesofsetbacksinitscompetitionwithotherEuropeanpowers,suchasBritainwhenthelatterwasmarchingsteadilyonitswaytowardsadominatingpositionfollowingtheGloriousRevolutionin1688.ThesituationwasworsenedbyFrance’sfiscaldeficitsandeconomicdifficulties,causedbyheavyTextStudy_I_1.1TextStudyMainIdeasMainIdeasTextStudy_I_1.2TextStudyMainIdeasMainIdeasheavytaxationandfrequentfamines,whichmadepeasantsandpoorcitizensriseupinrevoltagainsttheroyalgovernment.DuringLouisXV’sreign,FrancewitnessedviolentresistancebythepoortocruelexploitationandoppressionandsuccessivedefeatsinthewarswithAustria,RussiaandPrussiainthemiddleofthe18thcentury.ThesewarscostFrancethelossofmostofhercoloniesinAsiaandNorthAmerica.InadditiontherewasherfailureatsearesultingtotheBritishdominationandlossofhertraditionalnavaladvantage.TextStudy_I_1.3TextStudyMainIdeasMainIdeasInthiscriticalsituation,therewasnootherchoicebutapoliticalreform.Asthewholesituationworsened,themajorityoftheFrenchpopulation,peasantsandtheimpoverishedcitydwellersinparticular,sufferedbitterlyfromtheeconomicdeterioration,politicalinstability,socialchaosandculturalretrogressionandhencerespondedunhesitatinglytothebourgeoisiewhostronglydemandedthatthedeclinebecurbedandreformsbecarriedout.Undersuchcircumstances,someprogressiveintellectualsbegantothinkseriouslyandtriedtofindawayoutthroughsocialandpoliticalreformation.Meanwhile,thedisseminationofscientificknowledgewasunderwaywiththedevelopmentofcapitalistproduction,whoseinfluencebegantomotivateandevokeabreathofenlightenmentandtheoreticalguidanceacrosstheEuropeancontinent,includingtheBritishempiricism,whichwaspickedupbyVoltaireandhiscontemporariesandhelpedtoeasetheFrenchintellectualtension.SincetheRenaissancetheintellectualclimateinFrancehadgreatlyimproved.Manyofthepeoplewerebettereducatedandmoreknowledgeableaboutscience.TheyhadhadTextStudy_I_1.4TextStudyMainIdeasMainIdeasTextStudy_I_1.5TextStudyMainIdeasMainIdeasbecomemoreawareofthepracticalsignificanceofscienceandtechnology,andthisalteredtheirtraditionalviewsofdailylifeaswellastheirculturalandsocialaffairs.TheresultsofthescientificresearchofCopernicus,GalileoandNewtonwerepassedonquicklythroughaccesstobooks,newspapersandjournalsresultingfromtheinventionofprinting.Thisgreatlyinformedandaffectedthepublicwhoseculturaltasteandpoliticalviewpointswerethusmodifiedtothenewintellectualclimate.Graduallytheygaveuptheirreligiousandmetaphysicalmodesofreasoningandadoptedanewoutlookwithamoreprogressiveandscientificbasis.TextStudy_I_2.1TextStudyInterpretationofCulturalTermsInterpretationofCulturalTermsPrussia普鲁士：AGermankingdomandhistoricstateoriginatingoutoftheDuchyofPrussiaandtheMargraviateofBrandenburg.PrussiashapedthehistoryofGermany,withitscapitalinBerlinafter1451.After1871,PrussiawasincreasinglymergedintoGermany,losingitsdistinctiveidentity.Itwaseffectivelyabolishedin1932,andofficiallyabolishedin1947.Prussiaachieveditsgreatestimportanceinthe18thand19thcenturies.Duringthe18thcentury,itbecameagreatEuropeanpowerunderthereignofFredericktheGreat(1740–1786).Duringthe19thcentury,ChancellorOttovonBismarckunitedtheGermanprincipalitiesintoa“LesserGermany”whichwouldexcludetheAustrianEmpire.TextStudy_I_2.2TextStudyInterpretationofCulturalTermsInterpretationofCulturalTermsTextStudy_I_2.3TextStudyInterpretationofCulturalTermsInterpretationofCulturalTermsTheBritishGloriousRevolution光荣革命:AlsocalledtheRevolutionof1688ortheBloodlessRevolution,itwastheoverthrowofKingJamesIIofEnglandin1688byaunionofParliamentarianswithaninvadingarmyledbyWilliamofOrangefromHollandwhosubsequentlyascendedtheEnglishthronetogetherwithhiswifeMaryII,asthejointrulerofEngland.ItcanbearguedthatJames’soverthrowinitiatedmodernEnglishparliamentarydemocracy:neveragainwouldthemonarchholdabsolutepower,andtheBillofRightsbecameoneofthemostimportantdocumentsinthepoliticalhistoryofBritain.TextStudy_I_2.4TextStudyInterpretationofCulturalTermsInterpretationofCulturalTermsBritain.ThedepositionoftheRomanCatholicJamesIIendedanychanceofCatholicismbecomingre-establishedinEngland,andalsoledtolimitedtolerationfornonconformistProtestants,thusensuringtheProtestantsuccession.TextStudy_I_2.5TextStudyInterpretationofCulturalTermsInterpretationofCulturalTermsEmpiricism经验主义:Theuseofexperienceorexperimentsasthebasisforyourideasorthebeliefinthesemethods.Inphilosophy,empiricismisatheoryofknowledgewhichassertsthatknowledgearisesfromexperience.Empiricismemphasizestheroleofexperienceandevidence,especiallysensoryperception,intheformationofideas,whilediscountingthenotionofinnateideas.Inthephilosophyofscience,empiricismemphasizesthoseaspectsofscientificknowledgethatarecloselyrelatedtoevidence,especiallyasdiscoveredinexperiments.TextStudy_I_2.5TextStudyInterpretationofCulturalTermsInterpretationofCulturalTermsexperiments.Itisafundamentalpartofthescientificmethodthatallhypothesesandtheoriesmustbetestedagainstobservationsofthenaturalworld,ratherthanrestingsolelyonapriorireasoning,intuition,orrevelation.Hence,scienceisconsideredtobemethodologicallyempiricalinnature.TheEnlightenmentfirststartedin.Inthe17thcentury,Francebecamemorepowerfulineconomicandmilitaryachievementsduetothemeasuresandreformstakenby.Incentury,FrancelostitsinitialdominationattheseatoEngland.TheEnlightenmentwasinfluencedbyBritishanddisseminationof.WiththeworseningsituationofFrancein18thcentury,moreandmorepeople,ledbynewlyemergingstronglydemandedforpoliticalreforms.TextStudy_I_3.1TextStudyComprehensionExercisesFillintheblanks.(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)ComprehensionExercisesFrance______LouisXIV_________18th____empiricism__________scientificknowledge_________________Bourgeoisie__________,TextStudy_I_4.1TextStudyThinkandDiscussPleasegiveanaccountofthesettingoftheEnlightenment.ThefactthattheEnlightenmentfirstoccurredinFrancewasascribedtothedeteriorationineconomic,political,socialandculturalconditionsinthe18th-centuryFrance.TheFrenchpeoplestronglydemandedthatthedecliningsituationbearrestedandreformsbecarriedout.Undersuchcircumstances,progressiveintellectualsbegantothinkmoreseriouslyaboutthesolutionstothecrisesandtriedtoresorttointellectualandThinkandDiscussTextStudy_I_4.2TextStudyThinkandDiscussThinkandDiscussandsocialmeans.Thismovementalsoaskedformorepoliticalpowertothepeopleasthebourgeoisiejoinedinwithitseconomicsupportandthustheculturalmovementtinnedwithpoliticalcolourasabourgeoismark.Ontheotherhand,thedisseminationofscientificknowledgeandtheinfluencesofBritishempiricismalsoimmenselyheightenedintellectualandpoliticalawarenessofthepeopleingeneral.Thispreparedthepoliticalbasisofthebourgeoisrevolutiontofollow.TextStudy_I_1.1_popTextStudyMainIdeasMainIdeasTextStudy_I_1.2_popTextStudyMainIdeasMainIdeasTextStudy_II_1.1TextStudyMainIdeasMainIdeasAnEssayConcerningHumanUnderstanding(1690);ALetterConcerningToleration(1689);TwoTreatisesofGovernment(1689);SomeThoughtsConcerningEducation(1693)a.Herejectstheideaofinnateknowledge.Insteadheinsiststhatknowledgewasderivedfromtheexperienceofthesensesandmentalreflection.b.Politically,hewasthefirsttotalkaboutthedivisionofpower,andherealizedtheimportanceinsettingupasystemofmutuallylimitingandbalancingpowersandauthorities.JohnLocke(1632–1704)WorksIdeasNameofEmpiricistsTextStudy_II_1.2TextStudyMainIdeasMainIdeasATreatiseConcerningthePrinciplesofHumanKnowledge(1710);AnEssaytowardsaNewTheoryofVision(1709);ThreeDialoguesbetweenHylasandPhilonous(1713)a.Allrealityreducesitselftohumanthought,andtheexistenceofhumanmindsupposestheexistenceofauniversalmind,aGod.b.Natureiswhatmenperceivebytheirsenses,andthesense-datacanbeconsideredasobjectsforthemindratherthanassubstancequalities.c.HewasthefatherofalaterphilosophicalschoolcalledPhenomenalism.GeorgeBerkeley(1685–1753)TextStudy_II_1.3TextStudyMainIdeasMainIdeasAKindofHistoryofMyLife(1734);AnEnquiryconcerningHumanUnderstanding(1748);AnEnquiryConcerningthePrinciplesofMorals(1751)a.Allideascomefromimpression.b.Hisphilosophicalintentionwastoapplythemethodofnaturalsciencetohumannature,andtocreateabasicscienceofman.c.Heviewsknowledgefromapsychologicalperspective.DavidHume(1711–1776)TextStudy_II_1.4TextStudyMainIdeasMainIdeasd.Heregardedphilosophyastheinductivescienceofhumannature,andconcludedthatmanismoreacreatureofsensitiveandpracticalsentimentthanofreason.e.Firstphilosopherofthepost-medievalworldtoreformulatethedoubtsofthepastrelatingtocauseandeffect.TextStudy_II_2.1TextStudyInterpretationofCulturalTermsThomasHobbes托马斯·霍布斯(1588–1679):BritishphilosopherwhosefamousbookLeviathan(《利维坦》)in1651establishedthefoundationformostoftheWesternpoliticalphilosophyfromtheperspectiveofsocialcontracttheory.InterpretationofCulturalTermsTextStudy_II_2.2TextStudyInterpretationofCulturalTermsGottfriedWilhelmVonLeibniz莱布尼兹(1646–1716):Germanmathematicianandphilosopher.Inphilosophy,heismostlyrememberedforoptimism,i.e.hisconclusionthatouruniverseis,inarestrictedsense,thebestpossibleoneGodcouldhavemade.Hewas,alongwithRenéDescartesandBaruchSpinoza,oneofthethreegreatest17th-centuryrationalists,buthisphilosophyalsolooksbacktothescholastictraditionandanticipatesmodernlogicandanalysis.InterpretationofCulturalTermsTextStudy_II_2.3TextStudyInterpretationofCulturalTermsRenéDescartes笛卡尔(1596–1650):AhighlyinfluentialFrenchphilosopher,mathematician,scientist,andwriter.Descarteswasamajorfigurein17th-centurycontinentalrationalism,lateradvocatedbyBaruchSpinozaandGottfriedLeibniz,andopposedbytheempiricistschoolofthoughtconsistingofHobbes,Locke,Berkeley,andHume.Leibniz,SpinozaandDescarteswereallwellversedinmathematicsaswellasphilosophy,andDescartesandLeibnizcontributedgreatlytoscienceaswell.InterpretationofCulturalTermsTextStudy_II_2.4TextStudyInterpretationofCulturalTermsInterpretationofCulturalTermsImmanuelKant康德(1724–1804):An18th-centuryGermanphilosopher.HeisregardedasoneofthemostinfluentialthinkersofmodernEuropeandofthelateEnlightenment.TextStudy_II_2.5TextStudyInterpretationofCulturalTermsPhenomenalism现象学:Theviewthatphysicalobjectsdonotexistasthingsinthemselvesbutonlyasperceptualphenomenaorsensorystimuli(e.g.redness,hardness,softness,sweetness,etc.)situatedintimeandinspace.Inparticular,phenomenalismreducestalkaboutphysicalobjectsintheexternalworldtotalkaboutbundlesofsense-data.InterpretationofCulturalTermsTextStudy_II_2.6TextStudyInterpretationofCulturalTermsAugusteComte孔德(1798–1857):AFrenchthinker,widelyregardedasthefirstsociologist.Hedevelopeda(secularreligion)socialtheoryknownaspositivism,whichemphasizesreasonandlogic.Comtealsofoundedthesocialsciences.HeandotherearlysocialscientistsassumethathumanbehaviormustobeylawsjustasstrictlyasmaterialobjectsobeyNewton’sLawsofMotion,andthatifwecoulddiscoverthelawsofhumanbehaviours,wecouldeliminatemoralevils.InterpretationofCulturalTermsTextStudy_II_2.7TextStudyInterpretationofCulturalTermsPositivism实证主义:Thephilosophythattheonlyauthenticknowledgeisonebasedonactualsenseexperience.Suchknowledgecanonlycomefromtheaffirmationoftheoriesthroughstrictscientificmethodtosuggestthatmetaphysicalspeculationshouldbeavoided.ItwasdevelopedbyAugusteComteinthemiddleofthe19thcentury.InterpretationofCulturalTermsTextStudy_II_2.8TextStudyInterpretationofCulturalTermsJeremyBentham杰里米·边沁(1748–1832):AnEnglishjurist,philosopher,andlegalandsocialreformer.HeheldsomeradicalpoliticalideasasaleadingtheoristinAnglo-Americanphilosophyoflaw.Hewasbestknownforhisadvocacyofutilitarianism,hisconceptofanimalrights,andhisoppositiontotheideaofnaturalrights.InterpretationofCulturalTermsTextStudy_II_2.9TextStudyInterpretationofCulturalTermsJohnStuartMill约翰·穆勒(1806–1875):Britishphilosopher,politicaleconomist,civilservantandMemberofParliament,aninfluentialliberalthinkerofthe19thcentury.Hewasanexponentofutilitarianism,anethicaltheoryinitiatedbyJeremyBentham,althoughhisconceptionofthetheorywasverydifferentfromthelatter.InterpretationofCulturalTermsTextStudy_II_2.10TextStudyInterpretationofCulturalTermsUtilitarianism功利主义:Theideathatthemoralworthofanactionissolelydeterminedbyitscontributiontooverallutility,thatis,itscontributiontohappinessorpleasureasissummedupamongallpersons.Itisthusaformofconsequentialism,meaningthatthemoralworthofanactionisdeterminedbyitsoutcome—theendsjustifythemeans.InterpretationofCulturalTermsTextStudy_II_3.1TextStudyComprehensionExercisesTrueorfalsequestions.ComprehensionExercises(1)Lockerejectstheideaofinnateknowledgeandarguesfortheacquisitionofknowledgefromthesenses.(2)ThelateRenaissancefocusedonthemetaphysicalandrationalistphilosophy,whiletheEnlightenmentwasbasedonepistemologyandempiricism.(3)Lockerejectedthedivisionoflegislativepowerandadministrativepower.(4)Berkeleywasthefatherofaphilosophicalschoolcalledphenomenalism.(5)Hume’sempiricistphilosophygreatlyinfluencedImmanuelKant’scriticalphilosophy.T__T__T__F__T__TextStudy_II_4.1TextStudyThinkandDiscussGiveabriefintroductiontoLocke’slife,ideasandgreatworks.JohnLocke(1632–1704)wasaBritishphilosopher,Oxfordacademicandmedicalresearcher,whoseassociationwithAnthonyAshleyCooper(latertheFirstEarlofShaftesbury)ledhimtobecomesuccessivelyagovernmentofficialcollectinginformationabouttradeandcolonies.Hewasalsoaneconomicwriter,oppositionalpoliticalactivist,andfinallyarevolutionarywhosecauseultimatelytriumphedintheGloriousRevolutionof1688.MuchofLocke’sworkischaracterizedbyoppositiontoauthoritarianism.ThisoppositionisonthelevelofboththeindividualThinkandDiscussindividualandtheinstitutionssuchasgovernmentandchurch.Fortheindividual,Lockewantseachofustoseektruthbyreasoningratherthansimplyaccepttheopinionofauthorities.Onthelevelofinstitutionsitbecomesimportanttodistinguishthelegitimatefromtheillegitimatefunctionsofinstitutionsandtomakethecorrespondingdistinctionfortheusesofforcebytheseinstitutions.ThepositivesideofLocke’santi-authoritarianismisthatusingreasontograspthetruthanddeterminingthelegitimatefunctionsofinstitutionswilloptimizetheindividualandsocietyinrespecttoitsmaterialandspiritualwelfare.This,inturn,amountstofollowingnaturallawandthefulfillmentofthedivinepurposeforhumanity.Locke’ssignificantAnEssayConcerningHumanUnderstandingTextStudy_II_4.2TextStudyThinkandDiscussThinkandDiscussTextStudy_II_4.3TextStudyThinkandDiscussUnderstandingdealswiththelimitsofhumanunderstandingofGod,theself,naturalbeingsandartifacts,aswellasdifferentkindsofideas.Ittellsusindetailwhatonecanlegitimatelyclaimtoknowandwhatonecannot.Lockealsowroteavarietyofimportantpolitical,religiousandeducationalworksincludingTwoTreatisesofGovernment,LettersConcerningToleration,TheReasonablenessofChristianityandSomeThoughtsConcerningEducation.ThinkandDiscussTextStudy_II_1.1_popTextStudyMainIdeasMainIdeasTextStudy_II_1.2_popTextStudyMainIdeasMainIdeasTextStudy_II_1.3_popTextStudyMainIdeasMainIdeasTextStudy_III_1.1.1MainIdeasTextStudyMainIdeasPhilosophicalLetters;EssaysonCustomsandSpiritofNations;TheCenturyofLouisXIVopposedChristianityandbelievedinagodofnaturethetheoryofhumannaturetheviewofsocialfreedomandequalitythetheoryoftheenlightenedautocracyVoltaire(1694–1778)WorksIdeasNameofPhilosophersTextStudy_III_1.1.2MainIdeasTextStudyMainIdeasTheSpiritoftheLaws(1748);DefenceoftheSpiritofLaws(1750)thetheoryofnaturaloriginsofsocietygeographicalandenvironmentaltheoryclassificationofgovernmentanddivisionofpowerMontesquieu(1689–1755)TextStudy_III_1.1.3MainIdeasTextStudyMainIdeasDiscourseontheArtsandScience;TheSocialContract;DiscourseontheoriginofInequalityhumansocietyandtheoriginofthestateMenwouldreceivelibertyandtruepoliticsifacivilsocietycouldbebasedonagenuinesocialcontract.thetheoryofpeople’ssovereigntythetheoryofsocialequalitythetheoryofsocialeducationRousseau(1712-1778)TextStudy_III_1.1.4MainIdeasTextStudyMainIdeasTheFrenchEncyclopaedia(1751–1772);TheNun(1796);JacquestheFatalist(1796);Rameau’sNephew(1805);SupplementtoBougainville’sVoyage(1796);TheEncyclopaediadirectedbyDiderotplayedanimportantroleinpopularizingscientificandculturalknowledge,repudiatingidealisticideasandattackingroyalabsolutism,churchauthoritiesandChristiantheology.Diderot(1713–1784)TextStudy_III_1.1.5MainIdeasTextStudyMainIdeasDiscussionontheIllegitimateSonDiscourseonDramaticPoetryDiderotspeculatedonfreewillandheldacompletelymaterialisticviewoftheuniverse.Hefoundedhisphilosophyonexperimentandthestudyofprobabilities.TextStudy_III_2.1InterpretationofCulturalTermsTextStudytheIndexLibrorumProhibitorum禁书目录：“ListofProhibitedBooks”－alistofpublicationsprohibitedbytheRomanCatholicChurch.Theavowedaimofthelistwastoprotectthefaithandmoralsofthefaithfulbypreventingthereadingofimmoralbooksorworkscontainingtheologicalfallacies.InterpretationofCulturalTermsTextStudy_III_2.2InterpretationofCulturalTermsTextStudyJeanleRondd’Alembert达兰贝尔(1717–1783):AFrenchmathematician,mechanician,physicistandphilosopher.Hewasalsotheco-editorwithDenisDiderotoftheEncyclopaedia.D’Alembert’smethodforsolvingthewaveequationisnamedafterhim.InterpretationofCulturalTermsTextStudy_III_2.3InterpretationofCulturalTermsTextStudyPaul-HenriHolbach霍尔巴哈(1723–1789):AFrenchauthor,philosopherandencyclopedist.HewasbornPaulHeinrichDietrichinGermanybutlivedandworkedmainlyinParis.Heismostfamousforbeingoneofthefirstself-describedatheistsinEurope.InterpretationofCulturalTermsTextStudy_III_2.4InterpretationofCulturalTermsTextStudyInterpretationofCulturalTermsClaudeAdrienHelvetius爱尔维修(1715–1771):AFrenchphilos