业余运动员

业余运动员 Physical Education (HKDSE) Part VIII Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation Physical Education Section Curriculum Development Institute Education Bureau The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region 2009 PE(HKDSE) 1------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Contents Learning objectives 2 Glossary 3 Essential concepts and theories A. Olympic Movement and Olympism 7 B. International organisations, major games and major international 15 competitions C. China‘s sporting culture 18 D. Sport and society 20 E. Factors influencing participation in sport and recreation 23 Examples of enquiry activities 25 References for teachers 33 References for students 34 Related websites 35 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 2------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Learning Objectives This part allows students to investigate a wide range of issues in PE, sport and recreation in relation to society. It helps students gain a deeper understanding of the roles and values of PE and sport (Part I) from a socio-cultural perspective. It also nurtures students‘ higher-order thinking skills by engaging them in debating current issues, critical analysis of incidents, role-play, etc. Knowledge gained in previous parts will provide useful information and findings for discussing the issues identified in this part. Expected learning outcomes: Students will be able to 1. explain the relationship between Olympism and healthy living with appropriate examples; 2. evaluate the impact of major international sports organisations and events on society from different perspectives; 3. compare the sports cultures in Mainland China with those of Hong Kong, and highlight their differences and similarities; and 4. discuss the factors affecting Hong Kong people‘s interest and habits of participation in sports and exercise; and make recommendations on how to promote community sports. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 3------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Glossary Term Description 1. 業餘運動員 Amateur An individual who competes in sport on the basis that he/she will not receive any monetary reward for his/her involvement. This term originated from the ideal of putting fair play and team spirit high above any material objectives. 2. 皮埃爾 ? 德 ? Baron Pierre de A French historian who was the advocate and 顧拜旦 Coubertin founder of the modern Olympic Games. He was honoured as the father of the modern Olympic Games. 3. 商品 Commodity It is something of value that can be bought or sold, usually a product or raw material. 4. 傳播媒體 Communication A variety of communication tools such as media movies, television, radio, books, magazines, (傳媒) (the media) newspapers, etc. 5. 文化 Culture Commonly refers to a) sport and physical activities, fine arts, the humanities, etc; b) the beliefs, behaviour, thought, attitudes, values, goals and practices that characterise an institution or a group. 6. 精英 Elite A minority group of people with outstanding personal abilities, intellect, wealth, specialised training / experience or other distinctive attributes. 7. 國際奧林匹克International An international, non-governmental and 委員會(國際Olympic non-profit making organisation, of unlimited -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 4------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Term Description 奧委會) Committee duration, in the form of an association with the (IOC) status of a legal person, recognised by the Swiss Federal Council. Its headquarters is in Lausanne (Switzerland), the Olympic capital, and its object is to fulfil the mission, role and responsibilities assigned to it by the Olympic Charter. 8. 國際奧委會成IOC members The IOC comprises the following four types of 員 persons: a) Active athletes (number not exceeding 15); b) Persons holding senior leadership positions in international federations (IFs), associations of IFs or other organisations recognised by the IOC (number not exceeding 15); c) Persons holding senior leadership positions on National Olympic Committees (NOCs), or world or continental associations of NOCs (number not exceeding 15); and d) Independent individuals (number not exceeding 70). 《奧林匹克憲Olympic Charter The codification of the Fundamental Principles 9. 章》 of Olympism, Rules and Bye-Laws adopted by the IOC). It governs the organisation, actions and operation of the Olympic Movement and sets out the conditions for the celebration of the Olympic Games. 10. 奧林匹克運動 Olympic The concerted, organised, universal and Movement permanent action, carried out under the supreme authority of the IOC, of all individuals and entities who are inspired by the values of Olympism. It covers the five continents. It reaches its peak with the bringing -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 5------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Term Description together of the world‘s athletes at the great sports festival - the Olympic Games. Its symbol is the five interlaced rings. 11. 奧林匹克主義 Olympism According to the Olympic Charter, it is a philosophy of life exalting and combining in a balanced whole the qualities of body, will and mind. Blending sport with culture and education, Olympism seeks to create a way of life based on the joy of effort, the educational value of good example and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles. 12. 哲學 Philosophy A discipline exploring how to live (ethics), what exist and their nature (metaphysics), what is true knowledge (epistemology), and what are the correct principles of reasoning (logic). 13. 政治 Politics The process by which groups of people make decisions. It is prevalent in the international political arena and in government, business, academic, religious and other institutions at different levels. 14. 種族歧視 Racial Differences in treatment of people on the basis discrimination of characteristics which may be classified as racial, including skin colour, cultural heritage and religion. 15. 社會 Society A group of humans or other organisms of a single species that is delineated by the bounds of cultural identity, social solidarity, functional interdependence, etc. 16. 社會經濟地位 Socio-economic It is the "standing", the honour or prestige status attached to one's position in society. Social -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 6------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Term Description status is influenced by the social position. One can have several social positions, but only one social status. 17. 團結 Solidarity Unity or agreement of feeling or action, especially among individuals with a common interest. 18. 普及運動 Sport for all A movement promoting the Olympic ideal that sport is a human right for all individuals regardless of race, social class or gender. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 7------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Essential Concepts and Theories A. Olympic Movement and Olympism i) Philosophical foundations, history and development of the Olympic Games Ancient Greece was composed of different city states. Years of fighting among cities were common because of conflicts of interests. However, during the Olympic Games the whole of Greece was under a ―sacred truce‖, allowing all the Greek athletes and people to be free from the threat of war and to enjoy the athletic contests peacefully and joyfully. The concept ―harmony through sport to promote human development‖ advocated in Olympism long existed in the ancient Olympic Games; and the practice of a ―sacred truce‖ had a far-reaching impact on the modern Olympic Games. At the end of the 19th Century, Pierre de Coubertin, a French aristocrat who was fond of sports and very approving of the ancient Olympic Games, promoted the idea of enhancing the quality of education through sports and providing an opportunity for the youth of different nations to meet in a game that promoted mutual understanding, friendship and world peace. He travelled around Europe and the United States to lobby for this and finally, against all odds, set up the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1894. The first modern Olympic Games took place in 1896 in Athens. Subsequent Olympic Games have been held every four years. Three Olympic Games (1916, 1940 and 1944) were delayed for four years because of wars. At present, the number of countries participating in the Olympic Games is greater than that of the United Nations. The Olympic Games transcend barriers of politics, religion, colour, race and language. Olympism promotes peace and harmonious development. ii) Olympic Movement and Olympism Olympic Movement – According to the ―Olympic Charter‖, Olympic movement is the concerted, organised, universal and permanent action, carried out under the supreme authority of the IOC, of all individuals and entities who are inspired by the values of Olympism. It covers the five continents. It reaches its peak with the bringing together of the world‘s athletes at the great sports festival, the Olympic Games. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 8------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Olympism – The term ―Olympism‖ was first used by Pierre de Coubertin but he never provided a clear definition of it and people interpreted the term in different ways. In 1974, the International Olympic Committee proposed giving a clear definition for the term in the ―Olympic Charter‖. After more than 10 years‘ discussion, the following first official definition of ―Olympism‖ was included in the "Olympic Charter" with effect from 16 June 1991: Olympism is a philosophy of life, exalting and combining in a balanced whole the qualities of body, will and mind. Blending sport with culture and education, Olympism seeks to create a way of life based on the joy of effort, the educational value of good example and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles. The Olympic symbol – the “Olympic Rings” – The Olympic symbol consists of five interlaced rings. It was designed by Pierre de Coubertin, the father of the modern Olympic Games. The colours of the five interlaced rings, from left to right, are blue, yellow, black, green and red. The symbol represents the union of the five continents and the meeting of athletes from throughout the world at the Olympic Games. The Olympic motto “Citius, Altius, Fortius” – The motto was proposed by a friend of Pierre de Coubertin, Henry Martin Didon, who set up a sports school in Paris in 1891 and used the motto to encourage his students at a games day in 1895. Pierre de Coubertin liked this very much and kept the motto in mind for the Olympic Games. In 1920, the International Olympic Committee adopted ―Citius, Altius, Fortius‖ (―Faster, Higher, Stronger‖) as the Olympic motto. The motto fully expresses the athletes‘ spirit of commitment, continuous improvement and striving for excellence in competitions and training. Olympic Flame and Olympic Torch - The Olympic Flame is the flame of peace. According to a study report issued by the International Olympic Committee, the values represented by the Torch Relay have been well-received and praised by people all over -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 9------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ the world. People believe that the Torch Relay is superior among other ways of linking the world together. The Torch Relay represents and is associated with words like hope, peace, solidarity, friendship, harmony, understanding, equality, dignity, sacredness, purity, glory, classics, brightness, positives, joy, passion, pleasure, etc. The Olympic Oath - In 1920‘s Olympic Games, the swearing-in ceremony for the athletes was introduced. The oath reads: "In the name of all the competitors, I promise that we shall take part in these Olympic Games, respecting and abiding by the rules that govern them, in the true spirit of sportsmanship, for the glory of sport and the honour of our teams". The Olympic Anthem – In 1896, at the opening ceremony of the first Athens Olympic Games, King George I of Greece announced the opening of the Olympic Games and a choir sang the ―Olympic Anthem‖, but the song was not designated as the song for the Olympic Games at that time. Subsequently there was no regular song for the Games, and the host country made the decision each time. In the 1950s, it was suggested that a new Olympic song be composed for permanent use, but no satisfactory song was produced. Then, the International Olympic Committee meeting in Tokyo in 1958 confirmed that the ―Olympic Anthem‖ would be used. Its music is stored in the International Olympic Committee headquarters. Olympic emblems - The emblems of the Olympic Games not only embody the Olympic spirit but also reflect the characteristics of the host countries as well as the host cities. For example, the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games emblem, ―Chinese Seal, Dancing Beijing‖, is filled with Beijing's hospitality and hopes and conveys the city's commitment to the world. Olympic mascots - Although there are no specific provisions for them, Olympic mascots are the most influential hallmarks of each Olympic Games. The 2008 Beijing Olympic Games mascots were five ―Fuwa‖: Beibei, Jingjing, Huanhuan, Yingying and Nini. Designed to express the playful qualities of five little children who form an intimate circle of friends, the five Fuwa embody the natural characteristics of four of China's most popular animals - the Fish, the Panda, the Tibetan Antelope and the Swallow - plus the Olympic Flame. Each Fuwa has a rhyming two-syllable name - a -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 10------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ traditional way of expressing affection for children in China. Beibei is the Fish; Jingjing is the Panda; Huanhuan is the Olympic Flame; Yingying is the Tibetan Antelope and Nini is the Swallow. When you put their names together - Bei Jing Huan Ying Ni - they say ―Welcome to Beijing‖ offering a warm invitation that reflects the mission of the Fuwa as young ambassadors for the Olympic Games. The Olympic Cultural Festival – The idea of holding a culture and art festival within the Olympic Games celebration is embedded in the very foundations of the Olympic Movement. Nowadays, cultural and art events taking the form of exhibitions and festivals have become an integral part of every Olympic Games. The Olympic Youth Camp - The Olympic Youth Camp (OYC) is an educational and cultural exchange programme under the Olympic flag for young people aged 16 to 18. The OYC began at the Stockholm 1912 Olympic Games, when King Gustav V of Sweden invited 1,500 Boy Scouts to pitch their tents near the Olympic Stadium and celebrate the Games. The two World Wars interrupted the OYC tradition, but since the Tokyo 1964 Olympic Games, at which the OYC resumed, almost all Olympic Games have hosted an OYC. The OYC is an integral and special part of the Olympic Games. The goal is to promote the Olympic spirit and provide a unique Olympic experience for young people. It showcases the culture, history and customs of the host city and country. It also fosters cultural exchange and friendship among young people around the world. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 11------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ iii) China’s involvement in the Olympic Movement China‘s involvement in the Olympic Movement has reflected the nation‘s rise and fall in the different periods. In the early years, under the nation‘s policies of self-isolation and ignoring sports, China distanced herself from the Olympic Movement. Starting from the beginning of the 1980s, under the ―reform and opening up‖ policy, China has become a new force in the world‘s political and economic arenas. Great advances in the development of sport have also been seen. Dates Important Events Qing Government declined an invitation from the Greek prince and Pierre de 1894 Coubertin to send athletes to the first Modern Olympiad due to unfamiliarity with sporting events. First Chinese national sports meet was held as part of an effort to participate in and 1910 host the Olympic Games. The Far Eastern Games (originally called the Far East Olympics) were held and as 1913 - 1934 one of the founders, China participated in all 10 Games held during this period. The IOC recognised the Far Eastern Games and invited China to join the next 1915 Olympics and attend IOC meetings. 1922 Wang Zhengting was elected as the first Chinese IOC member. 1931 IOC formally recognised the All-China Athletic Association. A six-member delegation was sent to the tenth Olympics in Los Angeles. Sprinter 1932 Liu Changchun became China‘s first Olympic athlete. A 139-member delegation, including 14 male football players from the fishing 1936 village of Tai Hang, near Causeway Bay, Hong Kong, was sent to the Berlin Games. The Amateur Sports Federation & Olympic Committee of Hong Kong was 1949 established and became recognised as a member of the IOC. Hong Kong has competed in every Games since 1952. Some Chinese Olympic committee members went to Taiwan with the overthrown Kuomintang Government following the establishment of the People‘s Republic of 1952 China (PRC). These committee members claimed that they should represent China at the Olympics. The IOC invited only athletes from the PRC. The Chinese Olympic Committee (COC) claimed that the Taiwan sports 1955 organisation was illegal and that they should not be recognised by the IOC. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 12------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dates Important Events Taiwan was invited to participate independently. The COC lodged a protest and 1956 withdrew from the Melbourne Games. 1958 The COC suspended all relations with the IOC. Yang Chuanguang, representing Taiwan, became the first Chinese medallist taking 1960 a silver medal in the decathlon at the Rome Olympics in 1960. Ji Zheng became the first female Chinese medallist, taking a bronze medal in the 1968 80m hurdles in Mexico. Taiwan Olympic Committee was recognised as a national Olympic committee. Up 1970 to this point, Taiwan participated in five Summer Games. The COC successfully applied to the IOC for reinstatement. The Olympic 1979 Committee of the Taiwan region could only use the name ―Chinese Taipei‖. China took part in its first Winter Games at Lake Placid. China withdrew from the 1980 Summer Games in Moscow in protest against the invasion of Afghanistan by the former Soviet Union. Chinese Taipei Olympic Committee became a member of the Asian Olympic 1982 Council. Shooter Xu Haifeng became China‘s first gold medallist at the Los Angeles Games. Altogether, China took 15 gold, 8 silver and 9 bronze medals, finishing fourth in the 1984 medal table. Chinese Taipei won 2 bronze medals. It was the first time that both China and Chinese Taipei attended the Games since 1948. China sent large delegations to all Summer Games and always finished in the top four in the medal table. Windsurfer Lee Lai-shan won Hong Kong‘s first gold 1992 – 2000 medal at Atlanta in 1996. In 2000, Yu Zaiqing became the seventh Chinese in history to be elected as an IOC member. The Amateur Sports Federation & Olympic Committee of Hong Kong (ASF&OC) 1999 was formally renamed as Sports Federation & Olympic Committee of Hong Kong, China (SF&OC). It is a member of the IOC. Beijing beat off competition from nine other cities to win the right to host the 29th 2001 Summer Games in 2008. 2002 Short-track speed skater Yang Yang won two gold medals at the Winter Games in Salt Lake City. It was China‘s first gold medal at Winter Games. 2004 China finished second in the medal table at the Athens Games. Chinese Taipei won two gold medals. Li Ching and Ko Lai-chak of Hong Kong won a silver medal in the men‘s table-tennis doubles, defeated by China in the final. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 13------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dates Important Events 2008 China hosted her first Olympic Games, topped the table with 51 gold medals. Table 8.1 History of the China‘s involvement in the Olympic Movement iv) Challenges to the Olympic Movement and Olympism Political interference - The foremost challenge to the independence of the Olympic Movement comes from political interference. For example, in the 1970s and 1980s the Olympic Games faced large-scale political boycotts, rooted in the conflict between East and West as well as the conflict among countries in Southern Africa over racism. Conflict among the three pillars - The International Olympic Committee, international sports federations and national and regional Olympic committees together make up the cornerstone of the Olympic Movement. Their concerted collaboration is of paramount importance. At present, the relationships among these three pillars are on the whole good. However, there are some potential problems, mainly concerning the distribution of power and economic interests. For example, the International Olympic Committee considers the selection of the host city for the Olympic Games to be its exclusive right, but the international sports federations and national and regional Olympic committees want to change the status quo and be involved in the voting process. Commercialisation - Commercialisation enables the Olympic Movement to overcome economic difficulties but also affects the normal operation of the Olympic Movement. For example, at the Seoul Olympic Games, many events that should have taken place in the afternoon or evening were shifted to the morning sessions at the request of the American Broadcasting Company to match with the TV prime time in the eastern regions of the United States. This arrangement obviously affected the performance of the athletes. Professionalism - Amateur status was once a basic principle of the Olympic Movement and regarded as one of its vital elements. However, athletes must devote much effort and time to training to achieve a high level of performance, and the cost of long-term training can come only from national or corporate sponsorships. Apart from this, demanding amateur status would mean the exclusion of many good athletes from the Olympic Games. This would not be conducive to the enhancement of performance and would hinder the development of the Olympic Movement. Therefore, in 1980 the -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 14------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ International Olympic Charter abolished the ―amateur‖ requirement. However, professionalism may prompt athletes to care more about financial benefits and limit the participation of non-professionals. This topic is worthy of careful consideration. Doping - Using drugs to enhance performance means fraudulent results. It makes a mockery of the Olympic motto of ―Faster, Higher, Stronger‖. Doping is now firmly banned by the International Olympic Committee and the punishment for violations is increasing. However, as doping methods become more and more subtle, detection is a very challenging task. Ultra-large scale - Prior to World War II, fewer than 50 countries and regions took part in the Olympic Games. The number of athletes and countries increased rapidly after the War. For the 2004 Athens Olympic Games, the number of participating countries and regions was 202. Taking into account the coaches, referees, journalists, security personnel and service personnel, a total of more than 70,000 participants, along with hundreds of thousands or even millions of tourists gathered in the host city. Such a size is bound to impose a heavy burden on the host city and makes many countries and regions hesitant about bidding to host the Olympic Games. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 15------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ B. International organisations, major games and major international competitions i) International Olympic Committee, international sports federations and national / regional Olympic Committees The International Olympic Committee, international sports federations and national / regional Olympic committees together make up the cornerstone of the Olympic Movement. International Olympic Committee (IOC) serves as an umbrella organisation of the Olympic Movement and oversees the running and organisation of all Olympic Games. Its headquarters is in Lausanne (Switzerland). The IOC comprises the following four types of persons (number not exceeding 115 in total): a) active athletes; b) persons holding senior leadership positions in international federations (IFs), associations of IFs or other organisations recognised by the IOC; c) persons holding senior leadership positions on National Olympic Committees (NOCs), or world or continental associations of NOCs; and d) independent individuals. An international federation (IF) is the world governing body for a particular sport. Examples of IFs include FIFA, or Fédération Internationale de Football Association, and FINA, or Fédération Internationale de Natation (International Swimming Federation). All these organisations establish participation and eligibility rules; set schedules for events; liaise with sponsors and the media; and select referees, judges and other officials to run their respective international competitions. National / regional Olympic committees are responsible for the local development of Olympic movement at their places. For example, the Sports Federation and Olympic Committee of Hong Kong, China, promotes the interests of sports in Hong Kong and controls Hong Kong's representation in all Olympic Games, Asian Games, All China Games, China inter-city games and all other regional and international games. ii) Olympic Games and other major games / international competitions Olympic Games: , The Olympic Games are international multi-sport events comprising the Summer Games and Winter Games. The Summer Games and Winter Games are each held every four years. Until 1992, they were held in the same year. Since then, they have been staged two years apart. Fewer countries compete in -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 16------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ the Winter Games due to weather restrictions. For example, in the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games, 205 countries or regions competed in more than 300 events in 28 sports; in the 2010 Winter Olympics, 85 countries will compete in 84 events of 7 sports. , Paralympic Games – The Paralympic Games are held for athletes with disabilities by the International Paralympic Committee (IPC). The Games are also subdivided into summer and winter sporting events. Since 1960, the Paralympic Games have been held immediately after the Olympic Games and in the same city. Apart from Olympic Games, countries of the same region or language system also organise some major games among themselves. Examples include: , Asian Games - The Asian Games were firstly held in New Delhi in 1951. This event is currently run by the Olympic Council of Asia (OCA) and is held every four years for the purpose of developing intercultural knowledge and friendship in Asia. , East Asian Games – The East Asian Games Association Council is responsible for selecting countries to host the event. The historical first-ever East Asian Games took place in China in May 1993. Since then, the East Asian Games have been held every four years to promote sport and cultivate friendship in the East Asia region. , Commonwealth Games - The Commonwealth Games are organised by the Commonwealth Games Federation and were held for the first time in 1930 in Canada. The Commonwealth Games help encourage and support the pursuit of health and fitness in each of the member countries and provide an inspiration for youth to strive for excellence. The international federations also regularly organise large scale international events. For example, in volleyball, there are world cup and world championship events. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 17------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ iii) The benefits of organising major international competitions Organising major international competitions may have political, economic and cultural benefits. Examples of political benefits: , The hosting countries can demonstrate their strengths, arouse international attention and recognition through organising major international competitions. , With diplomatic strategies, they can promote political propaganda and foster cooperation. , They can arouse the national identity and strengthen the sense of belonging and cohesion of their people. , They can distract the focus in the countries from dissatisfaction on economical, social and political items to major international competitions. Examples of economic benefits: , The hosting countries can attract a large number of visitors and consumers so that several sectors such as tourism industries, advertising and marketing companies, hotels and restaurants will benefit. , They can create opportunities to expedite the city infrastructure, like improving transportation, communication and environmental hygiene. , They can create ―brand image‖ for the hosting cities to attract foreign expertise and capital. Examples of cultural benefits: , The hosting countries can promote active and healthy lifestyles by improving sports facilities and facilitating more citizens to participate in physical activities. , They can construct many new sports facilities for major sports competitions and some of these will become the landmarks of their cities. , They can introduce their cultural heritage to the world through the mass media. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 18------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ , They can develop elite sports and promote sports in the community and across different countries. C. China’s sporting culture i) China’s sporting culture The General Administration of Sport of China (GASC) - The organisation of sport in China stems from the Central People‘s Government. Working directly under the State Council of the Government, the GASC is the main central coordinator of sport for the whole country. GASC works in tandem with the All-China Sports Federation to ensure that the needs for sport and recreation of the population are met. The Chinese Olympic Committee (COC) also works with these two organisations and performs similar duties in China, as comparable to the SF&OC in Hong Kong. , Sport for all policy - In June 1995, the government announced ―An Outline of the National Fitness Programme of China‖ and set targets for nationwide health promotion and developed a sport system with Chinese characteristics. In October of the same year, the Sports Law was implemented providing guidelines to direct the development of community sport, school sport, competitive sport, etc of the nation. , Care for the elite athletes - There is a policy of nurturing elite athletes in China. These athletes receive allowances and support in training, studies and living so that they can focus on striving for excellence in sport. They receive awards for themselves, their coaches and their training units in the event of good performance. Their livelihood matters after retirement are also well taken care of. , Traditional sports - Traditional sports also form a very important part of China‘s sporting culture. Many of the traditional sports activities are not only beneficial for health, but also have high artistic value, as well as rich recreational and educational functions. Such sports activities include Mongolian wrestling, Tibetan yak racing, Manchu skating, etc. , International sports - The emergence of China as a nation with a powerful and thriving economy in the latter part of the 20th Century has paved the way for international sports such as basketball, football and baseball to gain footholds in the mainland. Sports franchises and multinational clothing companies began to investigate means of tapping into the new international sporting culture that was evolving amongst many of the younger Chinese generation. The success of Chinese athletes such as Yao Ming (basketball) and Liu Xiang (athletics) in -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 19------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ international sports has resulted in increased interest and participation in those sports. Furthermore, the hosting of major international events like Olympics, East Asian Games, Tennis Masters, etc has deepened the understanding of the general public about the important role of China in the global sports community. ii) All-China Games All-China Games are the national games of the People's Republic of China and the premier sports events in China at the national level. The Games also serve as an ideal opportunity for national coaches to identify and nurture athletic talents and build up national teams for the Olympic Games and world championship events. They have gone from being held at 10-year intervals to 5-year intervals and currently take place every four years. With the huge interest in sports generated by the hosting of the Olympics in 2008, the All-China Games are expected to continue to grow in popularity in the years ahead. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 20------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ D. Sport and society Nowadays, sport and society have a very close relationship. The following are some topics worth exploring: , What are the differences and similarities in the i) Sport for all and purpose, meaning and function between sport for sport for the elite all and sport for the elite? , Are there contradictions between sport for all and sport for the elite? Can these two notions complement each other? , When resources are limited, in what proportion should they be shared between sport for all and sport for the elite? , How do people with different global views and values think differently on this issue? , What are the definitions of ?amateur‘ and ii) Amateurs and ?professional‘? professionals , What is the rationale for amateurism? , What is the rationale against amateurism? , According to the general principle of ―fairness‖, is it appropriate for amateur athletes to compete with professional athletes? , According to ―Olympism‖, is it appropriate for amateur athletes to compete with professional athletes? , Is there a link between the debate on ―amateurism and professionalism‖ and societal development? , What are the functions of a competition? iii) Competitions , What are the functions of rules and regulations in a competition? , What principles should be adopted in the development of rules and regulations in a competition? -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 21------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ , How do people with different global views and values think differently on this issue? , What is the rationale for forbidding the use of iv) Drugs in sport certain kinds of drugs by athletes? , According to the general principle of ―fairness‖, is it appropriate for athletes to use drugs (whether prohibited or not) to enhance their performance? , According to ―Olympism‖, is it appropriate for athletes to use drugs (whether prohibited or not) to enhance their performance? , What are the difficulties of implementing an anti-drugs policy? , What are the influences on society if outstanding athletes are found using prohibited drugs? , Is there a link between ―drugs in sport‖ and societal development? , What kinds of violence are common in sport? v) Violence in sport , What are the factors that cause violence in sport? , What are the attitudes of athletes, judges, spectators and the media towards violence in sport? , What measures can be taken to prevent or reduce the damage caused by violence in sport? , How can we reduce violence effectively in sport? , Is there a link between violence in sport and societal development? vi) Politics and sport , What does it mean by “politics”? , Why should sport not involve politics? , Can sport be completely free of politics? , What measures can we take to prevent political interference in sport? , How do people with different global views and -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 22------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ values think differently on this issue? , What are the influences of the media on the vii) Media and sport development of sport? , There is evidence that in some sports events, changes to rules and competition arrangements can be attributed to the influence of the media. Is it in accordance with Olympism? , The way sports news is handled shows the media‘s understanding and interpretation of physical education and sport. As far as we can observe, is the media adopting the right approach? , In Hong Kong, what are the effects of legalising viii) Gambling and sport football betting on society? , According to general ethical principles, is it appropriate for sport to involve gambling? , According to ―Olympism‖, is it appropriate for sport to involve gambling? , Has legalising football betting brought any effects on the development of sport for all and sport for elites in Hong Kong? , How are adolescents influenced by their parents ix) Family and sport and siblings in terms of their interest in sports and habits of doing exercise? , What are the functions of sport in developing a harmonious family life? , Do people of different socioeconomic status x) Social stratification demonstrate significantly different exercise and and sport sport participation patterns? Why or why not? , Can sport help integrate people of different socioeconomic status? Why or why not? -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 23------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 24------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ E. Factors influencing participation in sport and recreation The following are possible factors affecting personal participation in sport and recreation. i) Personal factors: , Personality and interest - Personality may affect one‘s initiative, choice of activities, dedication, etc in sport and recreation. , Physique and physical fitness – Some people consider themselves as ―not the sporty type‖ and therefore are reluctant to participate in sport and recreation. , Previous physical experience – Some people may have accumulated some uneasy experience in sport and recreation due to a lack of basic knowledge or skills. , Career - Too lengthy working hours may prevent one from participating in sport and recreation. , Education – People with a higher education level tend to participate more in sport and recreation. ii) Family factors: , The socioeconomic status, family tradition, parental and sibling influence, etc determine the interest, opportunities and patterns of participation in sport and recreation activities to a great extent. Fig. 8.2 Family factors influence the interest, opportunities and patterns of participation in sport and recreation activities iii) Social factors: , Gender – With different social expectations, men and women make different choices when choosing physical activities, investing resources, setting goals, etc. For example, in Hong Kong, the participation patterns of men and women in football (being considered as more masculine) and dance (being considered more feminine) are very different. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 25------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ , Peers – To meet friends or make friends is an important motive for participating in sport and recreation activities. , Social climate – One tends to participate more in sport and recreation when TV, newspapers, magazines and people around are talking about health and physical fitness, or when he sees related promotional slogans. Fig 8.1 Gender influences the choices of physical activities iv) Cultural factors: , Mass media – TV, radios, newspapers and magazines, internet, etc all play an important role in promoting sport and recreation activities. Through them, information of sport and recreation activities can permeate through all sectors of society. It can also create a mass campaign for sports and recreation through the effects of celebrity promotion. , Races, religions, cultural traditions, social systems – People have different values because of differences in races, religions, cultural traditions, social systems, etc. They will also have different attitudes and show support for various sports and recreation activities accordingly. v) Political factors: , Depending on its ideologies, policies, political considerations, etc, the government determines the way how sport and recreation are promoted in society, including financial support and the mode of development; and these factors directly affect the participation of sport and recreation among citizens. vi) Environmental factors: , Location, facilities and weather – Factors such as location, accessibility to amenities, quantity and quality of the facilities and equipment, weather, etc play a part in determining the level of participation in sport and recreation activities. , The mode and frequency of participation in sport and recreation are also affected -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 26------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ by the economic situation of society. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 27------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Examples of Enquiry Activities Theme Activities 1 Major Issues for project learning (See additional information (1) to (4)): international , Political influence on the modern Olympic Games competitions , Major international sports events , Modern China‘s sports culture , Modern sports world , China and the Olympic Movement Reflection: 2 Olympism , Based on one‘s own experiences on sports participation, identify five to eight life events that embody the ideals of Olympism. Slogan design: , Design slogans to promote Olympism Information collection: 3 Factors , Browse through the website of World Health Organization influencing (WHO) and acquaint oneself with the following information: participation in sport and - the definition and benefits of physical activity recreation - the definition and examples of moderate-intensity physical activity - the definition and examples of vigorous-intensity physical activity - the problem of inadequate amount of physical activity among the general population and the WHO recommendations in this regard -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 28------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Examples of Enquiry Activities Theme Activities , Conduct a survey (with a chosen or specifically designed questionnaire) to understand - the amount of daily physical activity (excluding PE class) among students of different grades in their schools - the factors influencing the participation in sports and recreation activities (For example, sex, interest, physique and physical fitness, environment, family, mass media, etc) among the students , Make sure that the questionnaire will provide adequate data for the following enquiry activities. Enquiry activities: , Group the students according to their accumulated amount of physical activity (excluding PE lessons) - Group 1: accumulate less than 30 minutes of physical activity at moderate / vigourous intensity per week - Group 2: accumulate more than 30 minutes but less than 90 minutes of physical activity at moderate / vigourous intensity per week - Group 3: accumulate more than 90 minutes or more of physical activity at moderate / vigourous intensity per week , Compare the three groups and determine if there are different factors influencing their accumulated amount of physical activity (excluding PE lessons). , Discuss how to help students tackle the difficulties of participation in sports and recreation activities; and make specific recommendations. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 29------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Examples of Enquiry Activities Theme Activities , Announce the survey findings and recommendations. Information collection: 4 China‘s sports , Browse through the website of Chinese Olympic Committee culture () and study the following two documents: - ―An Outline of the National Fitness Programme of China‖ (in Chinese only) - Sports Law of the People‘s Republic of China (in Chinese only) , Identify cases of Hong Kong and Mainland China to show - the development of elite athletes - the development of sport for all - the development of sport-related careers Enquiry activities: , Compare the characteristics of the sports culture of Hong Kong with those of Mainland China -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 30------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Examples of enquiry activities (Additional information) (1): Political influence on the modern Olympic Games Objective: To understand the relationship between the Olympic Games and political events. Description: Students choose from a list of events in Olympic history given by the teacher and submit a written report on , the causes of the event , the implications of the event on the Games and the subsequent Games Examples of topics: , The 1936 Berlin Games used for Nazi propaganda , The withdrawal of China from the 1956 Melbourne Olympics , The terrorist attack by the Black September group at the 1972 Munich Olympics , The boycotts in the 1980 and 1984‘s Olympics , South Africa‘s return to the Games in 1992 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 31------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Examples of enquiry activities (Additional information) (2): Major international sports events Objective: To deepen students‘ understanding of international sports competitions. Description: Students investigate one of the international sports events with the following headings: , To what extent does the event draw attention from the public? Why? , Which organisation runs the event? What is the scale of the event? What human, financial and time resources are involved? , How is the event organised? What role does the government play? , What kinds of marketing strategies are adopted? , How can the gains and losses of the event be evaluated? What are the comments from various sectors? Examples of topics: , The FIFA World Cup , The World Artistic Gymnastics Championships , Wimbledon (tennis) , IAAF World Athletics Final -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 32------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Examples of enquiry activities (Additional information) (3): Modern China’s sports culture Objective: To understand the sports development of modern China. Description: The teacher gives the class a lecture on China‘s sports history and culture since the People‘s Republic of China was founded in 1949. Implementation: , Effectively using multi-media, the teacher traces the progress of the PRC as a sports nation from its inception right up to the present day. Particular emphasis will be on: - the nation‘s sports policy and systems - the stories of the national athletes - how the sports of China are linked to the world - how the economic and sports development relate to each other , Students are encouraged to raise questions -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 33------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Examples of enquiry activities (Additional information) (4): Modern sports world Objective: To broaden the scope of students and to help them understand physical activities from different perspectives. Description: In groups of three to five, students will be assigned one of the issues listed below. Students should present the information collected. Students should focus on the importance of the issue and its impacts on the development of sports world. Exemplary issues: , Globalisation , Commercialisation , Professionalisation , Mass media , Gambling , Sport and the law -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 34------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Examples of enquiry activities (Additional information) (5): China and the Olympic Movement Objective: To further understand China‘s involvement in the Olympic Movement. Description: During a class discussion, students should focus on the non-appearance of China at a number of Games in the past, her emergence as a highly competitive sports nation and her ability and readiness to host the Olympic Games. Implementation: , After conducting a lecture on the topic, the teacher leads a class discussion , Asks open-ended questions with a view to encouraging students to put forward their points of view , Encourages students to read relevant materials in their own time -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 35------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ References for Teachers Freysinger, V.J., & Kelly, J.R. (2004). 21st Century leisure: Current issues (2nd ed.). State College, PA: Venture Pub. Mallon, B., & Buchanan, I. (2007). The A to Z of the Olympic movement. Lanham: Scarecrow Press. Morris, A.D. (2004). Marrow of the nation: a history of sport and physical culture in Republican China. Berkeley: University of California Press. Mottram, D.R. (2003). Drugs in sport. NY: Routledge, 2003. Tyrrell, W.B. (2004). The Smell of Sweat: Greek Athletics, Olympics, and Culture. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. Young, D.C. (2004). A brief history of the Olympic Games. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers. 田雨普 (2007)〈北京奧運會承辦目的審視〉,《體育科學》,27(5),3-8。 吳潮 (2006)〈亞運會與亞洲的地緣政治—兼論亞運會的可持續發展〉,《體育科學》, 26(12),3-8。 徐元民 (2003)《中國古代體育》。台北市:品度。 第29屆奧林匹克運動會組織委員會 (2004)《中學生奧林匹克知識讀本》。北京:北京 出版社。 黃日明 (2001)《相約在頒獎臺:香港體壇的女兒》。香港:體院匯友社。 楊華 (2006)〈2008年北京奧運會對提升中國國際地位和聲望的研究〉,《體育科學》, 26(5),3-6。 葉肇和 (編) (2003)《二零零三特殊奧運會夏季世界比賽:香港代隊紀念影集》。香港: 香港特殊奧運會。 董進霞 (2006)〈北京奧運會遺產展望:不同洲際奧運會舉辦國家的比較研究〉,《體育 科學》,26(7),3-12。 劉宏裕等 (譯) (2005)《運動社會學導論》。台北:師大書苑。 韓滬麟 (譯) (2002)《體育冠軍》。香港:三聯書店。 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 36------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ References for Students Mallon, B., & Buchanan, I. (2007). The A to Z of the Olympic movement. Lanham: Scarecrow Press. Morris, A.D. (2004). Marrow of the nation: a history of sport and physical culture in Republican China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 徐元民 (2003)《中國古代體育》。台北市:品度。 第29屆奧林匹克運動會組織委員會 (2004)《中學生奧林匹克知識讀本》。北京:北京 出版社。 黃日明 (2001)《相約在頒獎臺:香港體壇的女兒》。香港:體院匯友社。 楊華 (2006)〈2008年北京奧運會對提升中國國際地位和聲望的研究〉,《體育科學》, 26(5),3-6。 葉肇和 (編) (2003)《二零零三特殊奧運會夏季世界比賽:香港代表隊紀念影集》。香港: 香港特殊奧運會。 董進霞 (2006)〈北京奧運會遺產展望:不同洲際奧運會舉辦國家的比較研究〉,《體育 科學》,26(7),3-12。 劉宏裕等 (譯) (2005)《運動社會學導論》。台北:師大書苑。 韓滬麟 (譯) (2002)《體育冠軍》。香港:三聯書店。 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 37------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Related Websites 1. Australian Sports Commission , Ethics , Violence 2. Beijing 2008 Olympic Games 3. Chinese Olympic Committee 4. General Administration of Sport of China (in Chinese only) 5. General Association of International Sports Federations (GAFIS) 6. Guangzhou 2010 Asian Games 7. Hong Kong Elite Athletes Association (in Chinese only) 8. Hong Kong Sports Institute , Doping Control , Sports Facts and Figures 9. Hong Kong 2009 East Asian Games -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation PE(HKDSE) 38------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 10. International Olympic Committee (IOC) 11. International Paralympic Committee (IPC) 12. International Sports Press Association (AIPS) 13. Olympic Council of Asia (OCA) 14. Sports Federation & Olympic Committee of Hong Kong, China 15. Sports in Society 16. The 11th National Games of China (in Chinese only) 17. Violence in Sports, Canadian Centres for Teaching Peace 18. Word Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part 8: Social Aspects of PE, Sport and Recreation