蒋廷黻与中国近代史

蒋廷黻与中国近代史 蒋廷黻与中国近代史——新的历史解读方式运动蒋廷黻中国杂谈 蒋廷黻(fu)，湖南宝庆人(1895—1965)，现在大多数人对其很陌生，但解放前无论是学界还是政界都享有较高的知名度。他和胡适一样，亦是中国近代学者中颇具争议的人物。他一生治学严谨，著述不多，其中流传最广影响最大的《中国近代史大纲》仅五万余字。但对中国近代史研究，蒋先生是个开山的人。 1912年，年仅17岁的蒋廷黻只身前往美国，在密苏里一所中学半工半读。1914年，进入俄亥俄州的欧伯林学院学习，在4年的大学生涯中，主修历史，同时也选读多门自然科学课程，接受了严格的科学方法训练，获学士学位。1919年进入哥伦比亚大学攻读博士学位，师从美国“新史学”的倡领者鲁滨逊的弟子卡尔顿-海斯。1923年获得哥伦比亚大学哲学博士学位，这一年他28岁。 1923年夏，蒋廷黻应南开大学校长张伯苓之邀，出任历史系教授，开设了中国近代外交史这门课。在南开六年，他以极大精力收集和研究外交文献，为以后辑录《近代中国外交史资料辑要》奠定了基础，并开创了一门新的历史学分支。可以说，中国之有中国近代外交史，是从蒋延黻开始的。 1929年6月，蒋廷黻应哥大校友，国立清华大学校长be carried out in time rust and antirust paint twice. While skeleton construction curtain wall fireproof, antisepsis, mine should be simultaneously, all skeletons complete after the required time and concealed work inspection, acceptance of concealed work qualified before the stone plaque installed. Stone in stone before they can use pollution prevention performance, radiation energy, water absorption properties and bending strength of various performance testing protective treatment and six stone two times, and minimize chromatic aberration, chromatic aberration under control mainly in the specification sheet and the stone material control, specification order form should try to distinguish between separate parts orders. Stone cutting must be carried out according to the same part of the same batch, different parts of different facades of stone panels applied when cutting different symbols of letters or Arabic numerals differentiates, in order to facilitate timely and accurately identify different stone when installing special mounting parts. Resolutely put an end to abuse with abuse. In addition to control and the local color, the other in the stone wall construction should be carried out before publishing, model wall dimensions as 84000mmx2000mm, stone size options for 1200mmx400mm 罗家伦之邀，前往清华担任历史系主任。在他的努力下，清华历史系延揽了雷海宗、陈寅恪、姚从吾、吴晗、萧一山等任教(同时规定学生可以兼修旁系各科)，这个阵容从今天看来，无疑是当时历史学的“梦之队”。 9、18事变后，蒋目击时艰，于1932年和胡适、丁文江创办了《独立评论》，以尽知识分子在国难时期所能尽的责任。他在发刊词中宣称“我们希望永远保持一点独立的精神，不依傍任何党派，不迷信任何成见，用负责的言论来发我们思考的结果:这就是独立的精神。”《独立评论》出版后，影响很大，备受朝野关注。 1934年初，蒋介石再次召见蒋廷黻，决定蒋廷黻以非官方代表团身份访苏，探测中苏两国合作的可能性，使重获转机的中苏关系日渐向正常化和友好方向倾斜。1935年12月，弃学从政，先后担任国民党行政院政务处处长，驻苏联大使等。1947年到1961年，任“中国”常驻联合国大使，61年至65年，调任驻美大使。1965年5月退休，10月病逝。 和胡适相比，蒋廷黻和胡同属自由派学者，虽长期在国民党政府任职，但终身都没有加入国民党，还经常批评当局的政策失当和政治腐败。追求民主和法制是他们的共同理想。在对当时时局的看法上，和胡适一样清醒，对当时的纳粹主义、共产主义、自由主义等意识形态的冲突，认为最后胜利的一定是自由主义，显示出自由派学者对意识形态冲突be carried out in time rust and antirust paint twice. While skeleton construction curtain wall fireproof, antisepsis, mine should be simultaneously, all skeletons complete after the required time and concealed work inspection, acceptance of concealed work qualified before the stone plaque installed. Stone in stone before they can use pollution prevention performance, radiation energy, water absorption properties and bending strength of various performance testing protective treatment and six stone two times, and minimize chromatic aberration, chromatic aberration under control mainly in the specification sheet and the stone material control, specification order form should try to distinguish between separate parts orders. Stone cutting must be carried out according to the same part of the same batch, different parts of different facades of stone panels applied when cutting different symbols of letters or Arabic numerals differentiates, in order to facilitate timely and accurately identify different stone when installing special mounting parts. Resolutely put an end to abuse with abuse. In addition to control and the local color, the other in the stone wall construction should be carried out before publishing, model wall dimensions as 84000mmx2000mm, stone size options for 1200mmx400mm 所持理念的自信。在参政议政上，表现出浓厚的精英意识，认为学者从政是知识分子的当然使命，是尽一个公民的责任。但和胡适不同的是，在政治上——胡适主张好人政府;蒋主张开明的独裁。在治学方法上——胡主张“大胆假设，小心求证”，“有一份证据说一份话”;蒋则每有著述，都信而有征，做到持之有故，言之成理，不愿将历史写成材料的堆砌。 1938年5月，蒋廷黻卸任驻苏大使，在汉口赋闲等待新的任命。时值中华民族处于抗日战争的危急关头，应《艺文从书》的编者之邀，他用了二个月的时间写出了其传世之作《中国近代史大纲》。全书五万余字，分四章二十二节，从鸦片战争写起，到抗日战争前夕结束，近百年的历史写得深入浅出，好看耐读。内容上没有拘泥于事件过程和细节的铺陈;方法上从总体把握演变趋势，显示了作者沉潜思辨的写作风格。全书以议事为主，而以时序别其先后，注重成败得失的分析。它以政治上的“鉴戒”和道德观念上的“垂训”，对治乱兴衰做出价值判断而为当世社会寻求历史借鉴，完全是一种以政治为经，事件为纬，以点带面，一线相系的线性方式结构。有别于毛-范(文澜)-胡(绳)近代史通史体系——即以马克思主义的阶级理论为指导，以阶级分析为研究方法，以政治是经济的集中体现为基本线索，以一条线索，两个过程，三次革命高潮，十大历史事件为基本构架，旁及be carried out in time rust and antirust paint twice. While skeleton construction curtain wall fireproof, antisepsis, mine should be simultaneously, all skeletons complete after the required time and concealed work inspection, acceptance of concealed work qualified before the stone plaque installed. Stone in stone before they can use pollution prevention performance, radiation energy, water absorption properties and bending strength of various performance testing protective treatment and six stone two times, and minimize chromatic aberration, chromatic aberration under control mainly in the specification sheet and the stone material control, specification order form should try to distinguish between separate parts orders. Stone cutting must be carried out according to the same part of the same batch, different parts of different facades of stone panels applied when cutting different symbols of letters or Arabic numerals differentiates, in order to facilitate timely and accurately identify different stone when installing special mounting parts. Resolutely put an end to abuse with abuse. In addition to control and the local color, the other in the stone wall construction should be carried out before publishing, model wall dimensions as 84000mmx2000mm, stone size options for 1200mmx400mm 社会经济和思想文化。 本书篇幅虽小，学术含量却很高，如果对当代中国史学近几十年的近代史研究稍加回顾，就会惊讶地发现，现在大部分研究者只不过是在不同程度上重复蒋廷黻早在60年前构建的话语系统。一个在资料匮乏以短短两个月时间写出的5万余字的“近代史学大纲”竟成了传世之作，不能不深感大师的伟大。厚积薄发、大家之道，信然。 全书共四章，第一章共七节，专讲外患。处在“中世纪”状态下的清王朝在二次鸦片战争中被西方列强打败而不知民族危机，主剿者狂妄自大，主抚者服输而不图振作，不思国家内政改革而白白浪费了20年的光阴。 第二章共四节，专讲内忧。洪秀全太平天国运动的冲击，曾国藩的湘军为维护清王朝的统治而战。曾国藩的革新与守旧。 第三章共五节:专讲自强运动(洋务运动)的产生、发展和失败。 第四章共七节:分别讲了甲午战争后的瓜分狂潮、戊戌变法、义和团运动、辛亥革命、军阀割据和北伐战争，一直到抗战前夕。讲了四个救国即洋务运动(自强运动)--经济、军事改革;变法运动——君主立宪，义和团运动---反西洋化，近代化;孙中山的“三民主义”----民族复兴唯一的路径。 be carried out in time rust and antirust paint twice. While skeleton construction curtain wall fireproof, antisepsis, mine should be simultaneously, all skeletons complete after the required time and concealed work inspection, acceptance of concealed work qualified before the stone plaque installed. Stone in stone before they can use pollution prevention performance, radiation energy, water absorption properties and bending strength of various performance testing protective treatment and six stone two times, and minimize chromatic aberration, chromatic aberration under control mainly in the specification sheet and the stone material control, specification order form should try to distinguish between separate parts orders. Stone cutting must be carried out according to the same part of the same batch, different parts of different facades of stone panels applied when cutting different symbols of letters or Arabic numerals differentiates, in order to facilitate timely and accurately identify different stone when installing special mounting parts. Resolutely put an end to abuse with abuse. In addition to control and the local color, the other in the stone wall construction should be carried out before publishing, model wall dimensions as 84000mmx2000mm, stone size options for 1200mmx400mm 前两章是大背景式的铺垫，是因;后二章是全书的主旨，为果。以下是蒋廷黻在《中国近代史大纲》一书中对一些历史事件和人物的看法和评价。 对林则徐的评价: 林则徐有两个，一个是士大夫心目中的林则徐，一个是真正的林则徐。“前一个林则徐是主剿的，他是百战百胜的。他所用的方法都是中国的方法。可惜奸臣琦善受了英人的贿赂，把他驱逐了，所以士大夫想中国的失败不是古法不行，是因为奸臣误国。当时的士大夫得了这样的印象，也是很自然的。”林的奏章充满了他的自信，可惜自道光二十年定海失守后，林没有得到机会与英国比武，难怪中国人不服输。林则徐是当时政界声望最好，办事最认真的大员，士大夫尤其信任他，他的自信力也不小，他虽然没有办过“夷务”，但他对外国人说“本大臣家居闽海，于外夷一切伎俩，早深悉其详”。在禁烟的问题上他主张严禁，他认为(鸦片)如果没有人吸食，也就没有人贩卖，所以吸烟者要治以死罪。虎门销烟后，他说:英国的战斗力亦不过如此，英国人“腿足缠束紧密，屈伸皆所不便”，他又想外国人必须有茶叶大黄，他禁止茶叶大黄出口，认为凭此就可以致外人死命。其后的徐广缙，叶名琛等主剿派基本上继承了林的衣钵，高唱be carried out in time rust and antirust paint twice. While skeleton construction curtain wall fireproof, antisepsis, mine should be simultaneously, all skeletons complete after the required time and concealed work inspection, acceptance of concealed work qualified before the stone plaque installed. Stone in stone before they can use pollution prevention performance, radiation energy, water absorption properties and bending strength of various performance testing protective treatment and six stone two times, and minimize chromatic aberration, chromatic aberration under control mainly in the specification sheet and the stone material control, specification order form should try to distinguish between separate parts orders. Stone cutting must be carried out according to the same part of the same batch, different parts of different facades of stone panels applied when cutting different symbols of letters or Arabic numerals differentiates, in order to facilitate timely and accurately identify different stone when installing special mounting parts. Resolutely put an end to abuse with abuse. In addition to control and the local color, the other in the stone wall construction should be carried out before publishing, model wall dimensions as 84000mmx2000mm, stone size options for 1200mmx400mm “民心可用”的高调，用民心去对抗外人的炮火，但他们没有林的好运气。咸丰七年冬，英法联军进攻广州，民众不但不抵抗，且帮助英国人把藩台衙门的库银抬上英船，叶被俘后押往印度，死在加尔各答。 真的林则徐是慢慢的觉悟了的。他到广州后就知道中国的兵力不如西洋，所以他竭力买外国炮，买外国船。同时他派人翻译外国所办的刊物，他的这些材料后来被魏源编入《海国图志》，日本人翻译成日文，促进了日本的维新。林虽有这种觉悟，但他怕清议的指责，不敢公开提倡改革。他让主持清议的士大夫睡在梦中，他让国家日趋衰弱，而不肯牺牲自己的名誉去与时人奋斗。 蒋先生感慨的说:“林则徐无疑是中国旧文化的最好的产品，他尚以为自己的名誉比国事重要，别人更不必说了。” 到了咸丰即位，当即下令林来京主剿。但林病太重了，不久就死的。“他的运气真好，他的名誉藉此保存。” 清朝时的对外关系。 在十九世纪前，中西没有邦交，中国对其它各国总是以“天朝”自居，把它们视作“藩属”。其主要原因是交通不便，西洋人从中国买的不外丝茶及别的奢侈品。中国的经济是自给自足的，邦交可有可无。二是中国不承认别国的平等，be carried out in time rust and antirust paint twice. While skeleton construction curtain wall fireproof, antisepsis, mine should be simultaneously, all skeletons complete after the required time and concealed work inspection, acceptance of concealed work qualified before the stone plaque installed. Stone in stone before they can use pollution prevention performance, radiation energy, water absorption properties and bending strength of various performance testing protective treatment and six stone two times, and minimize chromatic aberration, chromatic aberration under control mainly in the specification sheet and the stone material control, specification order form should try to distinguish between separate parts orders. Stone cutting must be carried out according to the same part of the same batch, different parts of different facades of stone panels applied when cutting different symbols of letters or Arabic numerals differentiates, in order to facilitate timely and accurately identify different stone when installing special mounting parts. Resolutely put an end to abuse with abuse. In addition to control and the local color, the other in the stone wall construction should be carried out before publishing, model wall dimensions as 84000mmx2000mm, stone size options for 1200mmx400mm 中国是天朝之国，外夷是蛮貘之邦，不知礼义廉耻。当时的清朝望尊自大，不知道有外交，只知道“剿夷与抚夷”。大臣也基本分为主剿派和抚夷派。 那时的通商也很特别。从南宋衰弱时代起，一帮理学先生提出了闭关自守又独自尊大的哲学后，国门渐渐关闭，到了清朝，国外和清政府的贸易仅限于广州一口，即一口通商。即使在广州，外人也是不自由的。只有十三行可以和外人做生意，夏秋之季是买卖季，他们可以住在广州的十三行，冬季必须回到澳门过冬，每月只有逢八才能离开十三行出游。他们在中国不得买中国书，不得学中文。当时清政府并不重视海关税，税率平均不过4%。但经贪官上下其手后正税要收货价20%。每次纳税都要交涉一番。对法权也不看重。外人与外人的民刑案件，不愿过问，自动放弃境内法权。最可笑的是懿律率英军到广东后，封锁海面，中国人的解释是英国人怕林则徐，北上占领定海是胜之不武。大臣琦善，甚至将英国外相致中国宰相书看作是“状纸”，是要大皇帝替他们“申冤”。等到矛盾激化时，战争也就不可避免了，其结果是大家知道的-----接受英国的要求，签订《南京条约》。蒋感慨道:在鸦片战争前，我们不肯给外国平等待遇，在以后他们不肯给我们平等待遇。 二次鸦片战争失败的原因和教训 be carried out in time rust and antirust paint twice. While skeleton construction curtain wall fireproof, antisepsis, mine should be simultaneously, all skeletons complete after the required time and concealed work inspection, acceptance of concealed work qualified before the stone plaque installed. Stone in stone before they can use pollution prevention performance, radiation energy, water absorption properties and bending strength of various performance testing protective treatment and six stone two times, and minimize chromatic aberration, chromatic aberration under control mainly in the specification sheet and the stone material control, specification order form should try to distinguish between separate parts orders. Stone cutting must be carried out according to the same part of the same batch, different parts of different facades of stone panels applied when cutting different symbols of letters or Arabic numerals differentiates, in order to facilitate timely and accurately identify different stone when installing special mounting parts. Resolutely put an end to abuse with abuse. In addition to control and the local color, the other in the stone wall construction should be carried out before publishing, model wall dimensions as 84000mmx2000mm, stone size options for 1200mmx400mm 战争失败的根本原因是我们的落伍(武器、军队、政府、人民)，失败是必然的，逃不脱的。“军事失败还不是民族的致命伤，失败以后还不明白失败的理由力图改革，那才是民族的致命伤”。战后与战前完全一样，麻木不仁，妄自尊大。其原因就在于“第一，中国人守旧性太重，要国人承认有改革的必要，那是不容易的。第二，我国文化是士大夫的生命线，文化的摇动，就是士大夫饭碗的摇动。一实行新政，科举出身的先生们就有失业的危险。第三，中国的士大夫阶级(知识分子阶级和官僚阶级)是最缺乏独立的、大无畏的精神。致使中华民族丧失了二十年的宝贵光阴，一寸光阴一寸金，个人如此，民族更是如此。 不平等条约的根源: 一部分是由于我们的无知，一部分由于我们的法制未达到近代文明的水准。 《南京条约》及《虎门条约》其内容主要是以下几点:1、赔款2100万两白银。2、割地.香港。3、通商，开放广州、厦门、福州、宁波、上海,即五口通商。4、协定关税,海关税载明于条约，变动需双方同意。5、治外法权。英国人在华只受英国法律的约束和制裁.6、中英官吏平等来往。 be carried out in time rust and antirust paint twice. While skeleton construction curtain wall fireproof, antisepsis, mine should be simultaneously, all skeletons complete after the required time and concealed work inspection, acceptance of concealed work qualified before the stone plaque installed. Stone in stone before they can use pollution prevention performance, radiation energy, water absorption properties and bending strength of various performance testing protective treatment and six stone two times, and minimize chromatic aberration, chromatic aberration under control mainly in the specification sheet and the stone material control, specification order form should try to distinguish between separate parts orders. Stone cutting must be carried out according to the same part of the same batch, different parts of different facades of stone panels applied when cutting different symbols of letters or Arabic numerals differentiates, in order to facilitate timely and accurately identify different stone when installing special mounting parts. Resolutely put an end to abuse with abuse. In addition to control and the local color, the other in the stone wall construction should be carried out before publishing, model wall dimensions as 84000mmx2000mm, stone size options for 1200mmx400mm 当时人们对这些条款最痛心的是五口通商。这五口又以福州最重要，上海则是中英双方不重视的。香港在割让之前毫无商业、国防用途，时人反对割地，但不反对割香港。直到《天津条约》签订后，清政府甚至准备以不收海关税来换取英法放弃在北京驻使，长江口岸通商。 协定关税和治外法权是我们认为不平等的核心，但当时清政府认为治外法权不过是让夷人管夷人，既省事又方便。至于协定关税，也觉得是省事的办法，一劳永逸，且比旧日的自主关税还要高一些。为了这些便宜不让英国独占，认为让法、美分去一部分，与中国并无妨碍，何不做个顺水人情呢?法、美白白得到这些好处,必将感激中国,我们或者还可以联络法、美来对付英国。所以法、美竟能和平与中国定约.总之,道光年间的中国人，完全不懂国际公法和国际形势，所以他们争所不当争，放弃所应该放弃的 李鸿章: 蒋廷黻认为李是中国十九世纪最大的政治家，是光绪年间自强运动(洋务运动)的中心人物. 李鸿章在同治三年(1864年)给恭亲王和文祥的信中说: “鸿章窃以为天下事穷则变，变则通。中国士大夫沉浸be carried out in time rust and antirust paint twice. While skeleton construction curtain wall fireproof, antisepsis, mine should be simultaneously, all skeletons complete after the required time and concealed work inspection, acceptance of concealed work qualified before the stone plaque installed. Stone in stone before they can use pollution prevention performance, radiation energy, water absorption properties and bending strength of various performance testing protective treatment and six stone two times, and minimize chromatic aberration, chromatic aberration under control mainly in the specification sheet and the stone material control, specification order form should try to distinguish between separate parts orders. Stone cutting must be carried out according to the same part of the same batch, different parts of different facades of stone panels applied when cutting different symbols of letters or Arabic numerals differentiates, in order to facilitate timely and accurately identify different stone when installing special mounting parts. Resolutely put an end to abuse with abuse. In addition to control and the local color, the other in the stone wall construction should be carried out before publishing, model wall dimensions as 84000mmx2000mm, stone size options for 1200mmx400mm 于章句小楷之积习,武夫悍卒又多粗蠢而不加细心,以致用非所学,学非所用.无事则斥外国之利器为奇技淫巧，以为不必学，有事则惊外国之利器为变怪奇神，以为不能学.鸿章以为中国欲自强则莫如学习外国利器，欲学习外国利器，则莫如觅制器之器，师其法而不必尽用其人。欲觅制器之器与制器之人，则我设一科取士，士终身悬以为富贵功名之鹄，则业可成，业可精，而才亦可集。” 由此我们可以看出:1、李鸿章认为清政府只有学西洋的科学机械然后才能生存,于是大办实业.如成立了江南制造局，天津机器制造局，轮船招商局等。 2、看清了中国与日本孰强孰弱，要看那一国变化的快。日本明治维新运动的意义他一下就看清了，认为日本将是中国最大的威胁,并大声疾呼要当时的人猛醒与努力。于是成立了北洋海军，派遣下级军官赴德、英、法学习近代军事。 3、改革要从培养人才着手.所以他要改革科举制度，设新学、派遣幼童赴美留学. 但是李鸿章由于历史的局限,他的功和他的过一样明显，蒋廷黻在书中借用了梁启超对李氏的评价作为他对李鸿章的评价: 知有兵事而不知有民政，知有外交而不知有内治，知有朝廷而不知有国民，知有洋务而不知有国务。以为吾中国之政教风俗，无一不优于他国，所不及惟枪耳、炮耳、船耳、be carried out in time rust and antirust paint twice. While skeleton construction curtain wall fireproof, antisepsis, mine should be simultaneously, all skeletons complete after the required time and concealed work inspection, acceptance of concealed work qualified before the stone plaque installed. Stone in stone before they can use pollution prevention performance, radiation energy, water absorption properties and bending strength of various performance testing protective treatment and six stone two times, and minimize chromatic aberration, chromatic aberration under control mainly in the specification sheet and the stone material control, specification order form should try to distinguish between separate parts orders. Stone cutting must be carried out according to the same part of the same batch, different parts of different facades of stone panels applied when cutting different symbols of letters or Arabic numerals differentiates, in order to facilitate timely and accurately identify different stone when installing special mounting parts. Resolutely put an end to abuse with abuse. In addition to control and the local color, the other in the stone wall construction should be carried out before publishing, model wall dimensions as 84000mmx2000mm, stone size options for 1200mmx400mm 机器耳。吾但学此，而洋务之能事毕矣。 《中俄密约》是李鸿章的终身大错，以后的瓜分之祸及日俄战争、<<二十一条>>、九一八这些国难都是那个密约引出来的。 对义和团运动的评价: 反科学，反近代，被顽固势力利用的牺牲品，特点:愚昧无知,开历史的倒车. 对辛亥革命的评价 辛亥革命打倒了清朝，这是革命惟一的成绩，但民族复兴的障碍并未扫除。 对四大救国方案的评价 1、自强运动----学习运用及制造西洋军器来对付洋人，阻力大，改革不彻底。 2、戊戌变法-----变更政治制度，君主立宪 3、义和团------反西洋化、近代化。惨败证明不能开历史的倒车。 4、三民主义-----实行军政、训政、宪政。救国救民族be carried out in time rust and antirust paint twice. While skeleton construction curtain wall fireproof, antisepsis, mine should be simultaneously, all skeletons complete after the required time and concealed work inspection, acceptance of concealed work qualified before the stone plaque installed. Stone in stone before they can use pollution prevention performance, radiation energy, water absorption properties and bending strength of various performance testing protective treatment and six stone two times, and minimize chromatic aberration, chromatic aberration under control mainly in the specification sheet and the stone material control, specification order form should try to distinguish between separate parts orders. Stone cutting must be carried out according to the same part of the same batch, different parts of different facades of stone panels applied when cutting different symbols of letters or Arabic numerals differentiates, in order to facilitate timely and accurately identify different stone when installing special mounting parts. Resolutely put an end to abuse with abuse. In addition to control and the local color, the other in the stone wall construction should be carried out before publishing, model wall dimensions as 84000mmx2000mm, stone size options for 1200mmx400mm 的唯一道路. 蒋廷黻在书中非常坚定的认为:我国到了近代要图生存非全盘接受西洋文化不可。 民族复兴的障碍 1、 封建专制 2、 军队私人化 3、 人民不知道什么是民权，没有思想启蒙 4、 一些读书人助桀为虐。 洪秀全与太平天国 洪秀全的耶稣教是个不伦不类的东西，他称耶和华为天父，耶稣为天兄，自称天弟。信者“无灾无难”，不信者“蛇虎伤人”，战死就是“登仙”，其它宗教全是“妖术”.洪对于宗教革命及种族革命是十分积极的，对于社会革命则是消极的。其“天朝田亩制度”可以说是马克思主义的最早中国版,虽有规定并未实行.他提倡男女平等，自己及将领多蓄妃妾。他的运动只是一个民间运动，反映了当时的民间痛苦和迷信以及潜伏于民间的种族观念。建都南京后，只不过是又一个“朝代”的开始，他的宗教则变为疯狂的迷信，快要灭亡时，be carried out in time rust and antirust paint twice. While skeleton construction curtain wall fireproof, antisepsis, mine should be simultaneously, all skeletons complete after the required time and concealed work inspection, acceptance of concealed work qualified before the stone plaque installed. Stone in stone before they can use pollution prevention performance, radiation energy, water absorption properties and bending strength of various performance testing protective treatment and six stone two times, and minimize chromatic aberration, chromatic aberration under control mainly in the specification sheet and the stone material control, specification order form should try to distinguish between separate parts orders. Stone cutting must be carried out according to the same part of the same batch, different parts of different facades of stone panels applied when cutting different symbols of letters or Arabic numerals differentiates, in order to facilitate timely and accurately identify different stone when installing special mounting parts. Resolutely put an end to abuse with abuse. In addition to control and the local color, the other in the stone wall construction should be carried out before publishing, model wall dimensions as 84000mmx2000mm, stone size options for 1200mmx400mm 南京绝粮，洪秀全令人民饮露充饥，说露是天食。太平天国运动即使成功，也不能为我民族造福,旧式的民间运动是不能救国救民族的,洪的真实心志不在建设新中国或新社会，而在建设新朝代。 对曾国藩的评价: 救了清朝并不能救中国. 副产品:私有武力--军队私有化。 对资本主义的认识,资本主义不是导致帝国主义的唯一途径 蒋廷黻在书中指出了帝国主义和资本主义的三层关系，在外资的利用\市场竞争及贸易的全球化方面都有他独到的见解,他认为“资本主义如同水一样，水可以灌溉可以便利交通，也可以成灾,要看人怎样对待。资本主义可以导致帝国主义，同样历史事实也证明，历史上的各种政体，君主也好，民主也好，各种社会经济制度，资本主义也好，社会主义也好，封建主义也好都有行帝国主义的可能，如蒙古帝国、中世纪的回教、十八世纪法国大革命等。 be carried out in time rust and antirust paint twice. While skeleton construction curtain wall fireproof, antisepsis, mine should be simultaneously, all skeletons complete after the required time and concealed work inspection, acceptance of concealed work qualified before the stone plaque installed. Stone in stone before they can use pollution prevention performance, radiation energy, water absorption properties and bending strength of various performance testing protective treatment and six stone two times, and minimize chromatic aberration, chromatic aberration under control mainly in the specification sheet and the stone material control, specification order form should try to distinguish between separate parts orders. Stone cutting must be carried out according to the same part of the same batch, different parts of different facades of stone panels applied when cutting different symbols of letters or Arabic numerals differentiates, in order to facilitate timely and accurately identify different stone when installing special mounting parts. Resolutely put an end to abuse with abuse. In addition to control and the local color, the other in the stone wall construction should be carried out before publishing, model wall dimensions as 84000mmx2000mm, stone size options for 1200mmx400mm 对洋务运动(自强运动)的评价 洋务运动是中国近代史上“第一个应付大变局的救国救民的方案”,但又是一个不彻底的方案。后来又是不彻底的执行，结果败在日本人的手里。“甲午战争是高度西洋化、近代化的日本，战胜了低度西洋化、近代化的中国” 洋务运动的诸多领袖如曾国藩、李鸿章、恭亲王奕忻等并不是事前预料到各种需要而订一个计划改革。他们是摸着石头过河,起初只是为了国防近代化的需要而改革。等到前进一步后就发现必须要再进一步才能使改革深入，由于他们认为中国的政治制度及立国精神是至善至美的，无须西洋化的，所以改革就必然不能彻底.当时士大夫阶层守旧，轻举妄动，民众的迷信、愚昧亦是改革不能彻底的主要原因。 对戊戌变法的评价: 主旨--变更政治体制.目的--实行君主立宪。 对义和团运动的评价: 反对科学化，近代化，被顽固势力利用的牺牲品，愚昧be carried out in time rust and antirust paint twice. While skeleton construction curtain wall fireproof, antisepsis, mine should be simultaneously, all skeletons complete after the required time and concealed work inspection, acceptance of concealed work qualified before the stone plaque installed. Stone in stone before they can use pollution prevention performance, radiation energy, water absorption properties and bending strength of various performance testing protective treatment and six stone two times, and minimize chromatic aberration, chromatic aberration under control mainly in the specification sheet and the stone material control, specification order form should try to distinguish between separate parts orders. Stone cutting must be carried out according to the same part of the same batch, different parts of different facades of stone panels applied when cutting different symbols of letters or Arabic numerals differentiates, in order to facilitate timely and accurately identify different stone when installing special mounting parts. Resolutely put an end to abuse with abuse. In addition to control and the local color, the other in the stone wall construction should be carried out before publishing, model wall dimensions as 84000mmx2000mm, stone size options for 1200mmx400mm 无知，开历史的倒车。导致中华民族陷入极大的危机。 读罢此书，感慨良多，回首百年，历史似乎又回到了原点，现实生活中的一些风云人物在蒋先生的著作中都能找到原形。这是一个惊人的世纪:虚掷了机会，虚掷了资源，也需掷了生命。外敌侵占的痛苦，国内政治的无道，使国家的建设无序，极端的国家集权主义又把大众推入贫蔽的深渊。在这个持续动荡的世界，一个严酷的审查制度令人失去想象的世界，个人的创造力与心智的探索都被扼杀在萌芽中。 be carried out in time rust and antirust paint twice. While skeleton construction curtain wall fireproof, antisepsis, mine should be simultaneously, all skeletons complete after the required time and concealed work inspection, acceptance of concealed work qualified before the stone plaque installed. Stone in stone before they can use pollution prevention performance, radiation energy, water absorption properties and bending strength of various performance testing protective treatment and six stone two times, and minimize chromatic aberration, chromatic aberration under control mainly in the specification sheet and the stone material control, specification order form should try to distinguish between separate parts orders. Stone cutting must be carried out according to the same part of the same batch, different parts of different facades of stone panels applied when cutting different symbols of letters or Arabic numerals differentiates, in order to facilitate timely and accurately identify different stone when installing special mounting parts. Resolutely put an end to abuse with abuse. In addition to control and the local color, the other in the stone wall construction should be carried out before publishing, model wall dimensions as 84000mmx2000mm, stone size options for 1200mmx400mm