Napoleon´s France 1799-1804

Napoleon´sFrance1799-1804Napoleon'sFrance1799-1804Between1799and1815thefateofFranceandEuropewasinthehandsofNapoleonBonaparte,themandescribedbyChateaubriandasthe,mightiestbreathoflifewhicheveranimatedhumanclay'.Napoleon'sultimatedownfallwasduetotheforcesthattheRevolutionhadunleashedandNapoleonaccelerated.NapoleonBonapartewasaCorsicanandalsoanofficerofartillery-anunfashionablebranchofthearmy.Hewasthereforedoublyhandicappedbecauseofhisunacceptableaccentandmilitaryexpertise.However,hedidhavetherightconnections.DuringtheTerror,hisfriendshipwithRobespierre'sbrother,andhisskilfuluseofartilleryatTouloninSeptember1793helpedhimrisetotherankofbrigadier.HiscoolheadduringtheVend,miairerevoltandhisfriendshipwithBarrascarriedhimtothenextlevel.MarriagetoBarras'ex-mistressJosephinedeBeauharnaisinOctober1796puthimintothecentreoffashionablecircles,andgothimthecommandofthe30,000menoftheArmyofItaly.Napoleonwasvery'imageconscious'andhadagreatflairforpublicity.Hispublishedbattlereportsandhis,ordresdejour'attractedpopularattention.Heoncesaidthat,moralforcewinsmorevictoriesthanmere'.Hewasanexcellentactorwhocouldappealtothedeepestnumbersloyaltiesofhissoldiers:,ThemilitaryareafreemasonryandIamtheir'.grandmasterAlthoughNapoleonwascapableofhumanegestures,theynevercamebetweenhimandambition.Hehadlittleconcernforthehighcasualtyratesof30-40%,whichresultedfromhistacticsof'toujoursl'attaque'(alwaysattack).Hismilitaryabilityconsistedofhiscombinationofmassconscriptarmiesandveryrapidmovementby,livingoffthecountry'-unliketheBritisharmyunderWellington,which'marchedonitsstomach'.Napoleon'svictorieswereduemoretologisticalplanningthantactics.Inaddition,hedesertedtwoarmiesinhislife,oneinEgyptin1799andoneinRussiain1812.Napoleonwasalsoincrediblylucky.NotonlydidheslippastacoupleofBritishfrigatesonhiswaybackfromhisEgyptiandisasterhealsohappenedtobethebestmanonhandwhenSiey,swaslookingforsomewayoflinkingthearmyandthepoliticalsystemand,inparticular,apopularmilitaryheroasa,front'ora,sword'.Siey,sdidnotoftenmakemistakes,buthemadeonewhenhechoseNapoleonfromashortlistofthreepotentials.InitiallySiey,sproducedaconstitutioninthecynicalbeliefthat,authoritymustcomefromaboveandconfidencefrombelow'.AcomplexsystemofindirectelectionswouldproducelistsfromwhichanunelectedSenatewouldchoosethelegislatorsandtwoConsuls,oneforforeignandoneforinternalaffairs.FromthisbasisNapoleonmanipulatedhiswaytowardssole,unlimitedexecutivepower.FirstofallhegotSiey,stoagreetooneoftheConsulsbeinginofficeforfouryearsandhavingconsiderablepowersoverappointmentofofficialsandtheinitiationoflegislation.Heusedthesepowerstorestructurethepolice,departmental,localgovernmentandcriminalcourtssystemssothathecouldcontroltheminhisowninterests.Theelectionofofficialswasdiscarded-evenforlocalmayors.Napoleon'spersonalstandingwasenhancedbythemilitaryvictoriesof1800andtheTreatyofLun,ville;hewentontoconductpurgesofthelegislature,thearmyofficercorpsandsurvivingJacobins.Then,inMay1802,withtherejoicingatthePeaceofAmiensinthebackgroundheconvertedhisjobintothatofConsulforLifeandamendedtheconstitutiontogivehimselfvirtuallydictatorialpowers.Aplebisciteof3?millionvotesto8000ratifiedtheextensionofhistermofoffice.In1803,warbrokeoutwithBritainagainandaplotbytheroyalistGeorgesCadoudaltokidnapNapoleonwiththeassistanceofBritishagentswasrevealed.ThiswasanexcuseforanotherpurgeofroyalistsandJacobins;inMay1804theSenatealsoofferedNapoleonthestatusofhereditaryemperorintheinterestsofnationalstability.InDecember1804hecrownedhimselfatNotreDameinthepresenceofPopePiusVII.Thetrappingsofacourthadalreadyappeared,butin1808hefoundedanimperialnobility.In1802theOrderoftheLegionofHonourhadbeenestablished,butitwasbasedverymuchonmeritoriousservicetothestate.Napoleon'sdomesticreforms1800-3ItwasintheperiodoftheConsulatethatNapoleonproducedhismostvaluablereformswiththeadviceofhisCouncilofStateanon-politicalbodyofexperts.Economicmanagement,TheBankofFrancewasestablishedinFebruary1800.Stabilitywasrestoredtothecountrybygivingamonopolyofnoteissuetothenewcentralbankandbackingitfirmlywithgoldandsilver.,Labourwascontrolled.Napoleon'sideasoneconomicswereratheroldfashioned.Heevenconsideredrestoringtheguilds.Thebanontradeunionsremainedthoughandpassbookswereintroducedtolimitworkers'freedomofmovement,Controlofpricesandthesupplyoffoodwasintroduced.Therewerenobreadriotstothreatenhisrule.Theexportofcornwasfirmlyrestrictedandmaximumpricesforbreadandflourwereintroducedin1812.Hewasawarethathungerwasamuchgreaterthreatthanthedesireforliberty.TheCodeNapoleon(1804)OneofNapoleon'sgreatestcontributionswasthecodificationofFrenchlawandespeciallythegreatCivilCodewhichreplacedthe360localcodesgime.ItwasacombinationoftheegalitarianismoftheoftheAncienR,RevolutionandtheauthoritarianismofNapoleon.Theoldpaternalauthoritywithinthefamilywasrestored,forinstance,whilewomen'srightswerestrictlylimited-Napoleononceremarkedthat,womenshouldsticktoknitting'.However,theachievementsoftheRevolutionwerecontinuedwithguaranteesofequality,propertyrightsandtherightsofthecitizenwonin1789.Publishedinasmallcompacteditionin1810,itbecameamodelforlegalrationalisationinmanyotherstatesofEurope.OnefeaturewhichwasgreatlytoaffectthefutureofFrancewastheinsistenceonequaldivisionofestatesbetweensons.EducationNapoleonlefttheeducationofthepoorandwomentolocal,municipalandchurchschools.Hedidhowevercreateasystemoflyc,es-selectivesecondaryschools-designedtotrainthefutureleadersandadministratorsofFrance.Athirdoftheplaceswerereservedforthesonsofofficersandcivilservants.TheConcordat(1801)Napoleonhimselfwasratherbroad-minded:heoncesaid,,ifIweregoverningJewsIwouldrestoretheTempleofSolomon'.However,herealisedthevalueoforganisedreligionasameanstowardssocialpeaceandorder:,Thepeoplemusthaveareligionandthatreligionmustbe'.Theresultwasthereligioussettlementinthehandsofthegovernmentof1801:theConcordat,whichsaid:,theCatholicfaithwasrecognisedasthe,religionofthegreatmajorityofthepopulation'.,theclergyweretobepaidasstateofficials.,purchasersofformerChurchlandswereguaranteedpossession.However,sothatheshouldnotbeseenasrestoringRomanCatholicismNapoleonattachedtheOrganicLawstothesettlement:,acharterofProtestantliberties,confirmationofthesubjectionoftheChurchtothesecularpowerinFrance.Infact,theConcordatenduredevenwhenRomewasannexedin1809andthePopebecameaFrenchprisoner.Napoleon'sLimitationsNo-onecoulddenyNapoleon'sastonishingadministrativeenergyorversatility,orthatmuchofwhathedidwouldhaveaconsiderableimpactuponthesocialdevelopmentofFranceinthefuture.Ontheotherhand,whathedidshouldnotbeexaggeratedintopartofthepropagandist,mythofNapoleon':Inhislegalreformsespecially,allthatNapoleonwasdoingwasbuildingupontheideasandactivitiesofotherreformersbeforehim.Consequently,allhedidwastoconsolidationoftheachievementsanddevelopmentsoftheRevolutionThereisamarkedabsenceofsocialreforms.Napoleoncaredlittlefor,lavilepopulace',andanyinteresthehadineconomicorsocialmatterswasnotaimedatimprovingstandardsofliving.Apartfromthespin-offeffectsofeasylootand,lagloire'Napoleon'sr,gimewasrootedonlyinthesupportofanarrowbandofofficials,middleclasspeopleand,ofcourse,thearmy.EvenlesscouldthesubjectpeoplesoftheEmpireseeanydirectbenefitsarisingfromalienrule.