古代汉语基础知识(王力版)
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古代汉语基础知识(王力版)古代汉语基础知识(王力版)
古代汉语基础知识
一、古代汉语常用工具书
1字典辞书的编排:1)按部首和笔画排列。2)按音序排列。3)按号码排列。
2注音方式:1)直音:即用同音字注音。2)反切:用两个汉字拼注一个汉字读音的注音方法。其方法是:反切上字与被切字声母相同，下字与被切字韵母、声调相同。如:“呼报反”，即用“呼”的声母h和“报”的韵母ao声调(ˋ)相拼，是“号”或“爱好”的“好”。3)注音字母和拼音字母注音。
3释义方式:1)直训:也叫语词式。它用一个词去解释另一个词。如:元，始也。2)描写:对被释对象的特征、...
古代汉语基础知识(王力版)
古代汉语基础知识
一、古代汉语常用工具书
1字典辞书的编排:1)按部首和笔画排列。2)按音序排列。3)按号码排列。
2注音方式:1)直音:即用同音字注音。2)反切:用两个汉字拼注一个汉字读音的注音方法。其方法是:反切上字与被切字声母相同，下字与被切字韵母、声调相同。如:“呼报反”，即用“呼”的声母h和“报”的韵母ao声调(ˋ)相拼，是“号”或“爱好”的“好”。3)注音字母和拼音字母注音。
3释义方式:1)直训:也叫语词式。它用一个词去解释另一个词。如:元，始也。2)描写:对被释对象的特征、形状、位置、作用等给予解释。如:缶，瓦器，所以盛酒浆、秦人鼓之以节歌。3)义界:也称为定义式。如:斗，十升也。4)譬况:即用人们熟知的事物去比方不熟悉的或难以解说的事物。如:黑，火所熏之色也。
4常用工具书:1)《说文解字》简称《说文》，东汉许慎著。是我国规存最早的字典。全书分汉字为540部，开创了以部首统率汉字的字典编纂法，收字以
小篆为主。
2)《康熙字典》:是清朝康熙49看开始编写的，参加编写的有张玉书、陈廷敬等三十人，于康熙55看编成。这部字典按部首笔画的多少，把214个部首分别归入十二集中。十二集以子丑寅卯等十二地支命名。
3)《汉语大字典》:是一部解释汉字形、音、义的大型语文工具书。这部大字典是目前我国搜集汉字单字最多的字典，共收单字五万六千个左右。
4)《古汉语常用字字典》:北京大学中文系汉语专业等单位联合编写，1979年出版。收古汉语常用字三千七百多个。修订版于1993年问世。
5)《辞源》:专门为阅读古籍和古代文史研究使用的工具书。
6)《辞海》:是一部综合性的辞书。所收对象除单字外，主要是语词、人物、著作、历史事件、古今地名、团体组织以及各学科名词术语等。古语今语、古义今义并收。
7)《汉语大辞典》:由《汉语大辞典》编辑委员会、《汉语大辞典》编纂处编纂。1986年第一卷出版，1994年出版最后一卷。全书十二卷，共收单字二1万
二千个左右，词目约三十七万条，五千余万字。是一部大型的历时性的详解语文词典，它试图从语词的历史演变过程加以阐述，古今兼收，源流并重。首先，这部词典是迄今汉语语文辞书中搜罗最为宏富的一部大型语挥文词典。其次，这部词典引例丰富，是在收集大量第一手资料的基础上编写成的，保证了收词立目、释义探源方面能超逸前人。
8)《经传释词》:清王引之著，是一本着重研究先秦和汉代经传中虚词特殊用法的著作。
9)《词诠》:近人杨树达著。这部书收集了古书中常用的介词、连词、助词、语气词及一部分代词、动词、副词，它们的用法、意义并引书证。
(10)《诗词曲语辞汇释》:近人张相著。这部书汇集了唐宋金元明以来流行于诗词剧曲中的特殊鱼词537个，作者从大量的材料中加以比较推敲，考释语辞的含义和作用。这部著作是我们阅读和研究古典诗词曲的重要参考书和工具书。
二、汉字的结构
1、汉字的结构与“六书”
1)六书:象形、指事、会意、形声、转注、假借。
2)象形:象形字的结构特点是依样画葫芦，即许慎所谓“画成其物，随体诘诎”。如日、月、止、目、人、车、行、牛、瓜、眉、虎、高、夕、犬、女等。
3)指事:许慎的定义是“视而可识，察而见意。”一眼看去就可以认识大体，仔细观察就发现意义所在。如:上、下、中、亦(腋)、本、末、未、寸、刃、甘等。
4)会意:许慎:“比类合谊，以见指挥”，字面意思是会合成意，即由若干符号相互构成一种联系来表达某种意义。如:逐、取、武、及、戒、朝、暮、牧等
5)形声:由两个部分构成，一个部分表示意义或字义的属类，叫形符(或意符);另一部分大致地表音，叫声符。如:江、河、杨、柳等。
6)假借:许慎:“本无其字，依声托事”。有些词原先没有为它造过专用字，只是从现成的字中选取一个读音相同或相近的字来代替，后来习惯了，这个字也就归它使用了。如:莫。
7)转注:许慎:“建类一首，同意相受。”即两个字的部首相同、两个字的
意义有引申关系。如:考、老。
8)形声字的形符和声符的位置:(1)左形右声。如:松、理、越。(2)右形左声。如雕、期、鸿、救。(3)上形下声。如茅、空、简。(4)下形上声。如基、裳、姿。(5)外形内声。如园、闾、街。(6)内形外声。如辩、闻、雠。
9)形符和声符位置有反常的情况:如“视、祁、锦、钦、冯、和、蚀”是右形左声，“钊、到”是左形右声，“闷、问”是内形外声，“闺、阁”是外形内声，“孟”是上形下声，“笃、筑、竺”是下形上声。
10)形符和声符不能按自然结构分析:(1)形符偏于一隅:修、倏、腾、滕、裁、栽、颖、颍、佞、疆。(2)声符偏于一隅:旗、施、徒、徙。(3)形符藏于声符中间:赢、羸、辩、辨、哀。(4)声符藏于形符中间:裹、衷、戚。(5)互相穿插，分合离奇:随、游、赖。
11)省形和省声:有少数形声字，它的形符或声符已经简省，必须补全才能起表意或表声作用。如:釜，从金省，父声。雷，从雨，田省声。
12)最早成系统的文字，现在已知的是商代的文字，包括商代金文、甲骨文。
13)文字的演变阶段:(1)古代文字:商--金文、甲骨文。周金文。战国西方周秦的“籀文”属大篆文字。东方六国系统的文字是“古文”。秦小篆、秦隶。(2)今文字:汉隶、章草、行书。魏晋真书(楷书)。
14)隶变:汉字由篆书到隶书的变化叫隶变。
15)隶变对汉字结构的影响:
(1)部首形体的变化:如“人”变为“亻”，“心”变为“忄”。(2)简省或讹变。如“春”，从艹从日，屯声，(上部讹变)。“更”，从攴丙声(整体讹变)。(3)混同，是讹变的后果。有些原先不相同的偏旁，隶变后就混同了。如“服”从舟而不从月，“脍”从肉而不从月。
16)本义:汉字在造字之初所代表的词义称为文字的本义。
17)如何探求本义:探求本义，既不能脱离文字形体，也不能脱离文献用例。若撇开字形，仅从文献用例追溯词义的源头，是无法或难以办到的。如诛;若仅根据字形而脱离文献语言，探求本义也是不大可能的。如高。 三、古书中的用字
1假借字:凡文献中的用字，如果它所记录的词不是该字的本义或引伸义，
这个字就是假借字。
2、假借字的分类:(1)本无其字:某些词原先并没有为它专门造字，人们从现有的文字中选取某些同音字来记录它，这是本无其字的假借。有两种结果:A某些词既然本无其字，于是它的假借字也就一直归它使用了。至于假借字是否还同时用于表示本义，有两种情况:a有的假借字自从被它借用以后，它又改头换面以新的面貌来表示本义。如“莫”本义是昏暮，后假借为否定性无定代词。自从它被借用后，为本义又造了一个“暮”字。“莫”的本义反而不为人所知了。b有些假借字被借用后，它兼有表本义和假借义两种功能，如“汝”本义是水名，假借义为第二人称代词，现本义和假借义同时存在。B本无其字的假借字使用一段时期以后，为了区别用法，人们为假借义另造新字。如“辟”，本义是刑法，假借义是避开，为假借义造了后起本字为“避”。
(2)本有其字:某些词原先已为它造过专用字，但由于种种原因，书写者没使用本字，而另找一个读音相同或相近的字来代替它，这是本有其字的假借。有三种情况:A、在某种意义上借字与本字通用。a本字是规范字，如“早蚤”、“疲罢”、“伸信”前面一个是本字，后面是假借字。尽管两字通用，在常人心中仍以本字为规范字。b假借字人们习以为常，把它视同本字。如“彼匪”。B、平时用本字，偶尔用同音字、近音字来代替。如“寤”借为“牾”，即写了别字。C假借字的使用频率大大超过了本字，以致最后通行的是假借字，本字反而不用或罕用了，如“亡”最初只表示没有或亡失，“无”只表示求雨的舞蹈;从西周金文开始，有无的无既用“亡”，也用“无”;先秦古书中“无”的用例已大大超过了“亡”;到后代，基本上都用“无”字了。
3、古今字:同一个词在不同的时代用不同的字来表示，就形成古今字，在前的叫古字，在后的叫今字。如“莫?暮”。
4、古今字的形体:(1)古字+形符?今字。如“其?箕”“取?娶”“昏?婚”。(2)古字改变形符?今字。如“说?悦”“振?赈”“没?殁”“张?胀”。(3)古字略加变形?今字。如“大?太”“闲?间”“陈?阵”。(4)也有些由通假造成的古今字，形体上可能无关。如“亡?无”“伯?霸”。
5、古今字形成的原因:(1)古今字假借为其他用途，又为它的本义造今字。如“正?征”“队?坠”“或?域”。(2)古字用于表示引申义，又为它的本义造
今字。如“责?债”“益?溢”“景?影”。(3)古字用于表示本义，又为它的引申义造今字。如“解?懈”“家?嫁”“支?肢”“道?导”。(4)古字用于表示本义，又为它的假借义造今字。如“辟?避”“厌?餍”“与?欤”。
6、古今字与假借字的关系:二者有交叉现象。古今字立足于时代的不同和用法的分工，假借字则立足于文献中文字所表示的意义跟它的本义是否有关。
7、异体字:(1)狭义的异体字指读音相同，意义相同，而形体不同的文字。(2)广义的异体字除包括狭义异体字外，还包括文献中通用的假借字和古今字。本教材讨论的是前者。
8、异体字的形体类别:(1)文字结构类型的不同。如“泪-- ”“野-- ”“看-- ”。(2)同是会意字，而构成成分不同。如“明-- ”“弃”。(3)同是形声字而成份或位置不同。如“烟”“歌-- ”“村-- ”“岭-- ”“鞍-- ”。(4)隶变不同或文字讹变。如“春-- ”“享-- ”。(5)为了书写方便而形成的俗字。如“册”“别-- ”。(6)还有一些是古体字。如“礼-- ”“无-- ”。
9、异体字的辨识:(1)同出一源，分化后分工明确。如“乌”和“於”原先是同一个字，春秋后才逐渐分化为不同形体，二字分工明确，意义不同。因此
)虽然通用，但有一个义项不通用。如“修”它们曾经是异体字，现在却不算了。(2
和“”是通假关系，而不是异体关系。
10、繁简字:简化字与被简化的繁体字合称为繁简字。(1)简化字:特指1956年国务院公布的《汉字简化》所颁布的简化字，不一定笔画少就是简体字。(2)繁体字:特指与简化字相应的繁写楷书字体。
11、必须注意的几个问:(1)同形字:有些简化定与古书中的某些字字形完全相同，但实际上是读音和意义都不相同的两个字，形体相同纯属于巧合。如“腊-- ”“术-- ”“适-- ”。(2)同音替代字:简化字中有一些来源于原先意义不同的同音(或音近)字，如“后後”“药-- ”“仆-- ”“几”“谷-- ”。(3)两字共简为一形，必须注意判别它代表的到底是哪一个字。如“钟”是“锺”和“”的简化字。另外还有“历-- 、”“复-- 、”。
四、 古今词义的异同
1词义异同的情况:1)有些词古今都用，词义不变。如山、水、雪、母、弟、心、耳等。2)古用今废词。古代曾经使用而现代不用的旧词。如“觥”等。
3)古今义绝对不同。古代和现代用的是相同的字，而古义与今义却迥然不同。如“斋”本来是动词，指古代祭祀或典礼前的清心洁身，以示虔诚。魏晋时期有了居室、房舍的意义。4)大多数词古今义有联系有区别。
2造成旧词消亡的原因:1)它们随着所表示的历史事物的消亡而消亡。如“喽腊”的“喽”，是古代楚地祭祀饮食神的节日，后来祭祀这种形式消亡了，“喽”这个词也就不用了。2)随着社会观念的改变而消逝。如“祲”。3)被别的词语所替代，也就是说旧词所反映的事物、观念等仍是后代社会生活中存在的，但后代改变了说法。如“倡优”现在用“艺人、演员”来代替，旧词“倡优”也就死亡了。
3古今词义的差别:1)意义的多少不同。一个词有本义，有引申义，一个词的古今意义的多少，往往会产生变化，有的旧义消亡了，有的新义产生了。如“池”在古代意义是a护城河b池塘。现代意义是a池塘b旁边高中间洼下的地方。古今相比，“池”的意义一增一减。另外还有:国、防、家、列、怜、仇、除、仅、书、信、将等。2)词义的侧重点不同。如“售”，古义侧重行为的结果，指把商品卖掉，今义侧重行为的本身，是卖。“再”，古义是侧重行为的数量，是两次是第二次。今义侧重于行为的重复，是“又”。3)词义的轻重和感情色彩不同。一些词在发展中意义的轻重发生了变化。如“恨”的古义轻，是遗憾、不满，今义重，是仇恨、忿恨。“怨”的古义重，是恨的意思，今义轻，是埋怨和不满。还有一些词在发展中褒贬意义发生了变化。如“谣言”古义是中性的，今义是贬义。另外“下流”古中今贬，“吹嘘”古褒今贬，“谤议”古中今贬，“爪牙”古褒今贬，“锻炼”古贬今褒。4)词义所指的名物制度不同。如“布”古指麻布、葛布。今指棉布。“坐”古指两膝着席或床榻，臀部压在脚后根上，今指臀着席位上。
4词义变化的类型:从古今词义的范围着眼，可以把词义的变化分为词义的缩小、词义的扩大、词义的转移三类。
5、词义的缩小:其特点是古义的范围大于今义，今义一般包括在古义之中。如“坟”古义是用土堆积而成的高地，今义是埋尸体的土堆。“臭”古义是气味，今义是难闻的气味。另外还有“亲戚”“宫”“禽”“丈夫”“丈人”等。
6、词义的扩大:古义的范围小于今义。如“焚”古义是放火烧山进行围猎，
今义泛指一切焚烧。另外有:“响”“色”“河”“江”“裁”等。
7、词义的转移:词义由指甲事物变为指乙事物，词义中心转移，而甲乙事物之间又有一定的联系。如“封”古义指积土成堆，今义指封闭。另外还有“走、脚、狱、诛、货”等。
8、怎样掌握词的古义:我们必须勤查有关的工具书与阅读古代作品相结合，对词义的古今义例反复参证比较，还可以通过一些文字的和语言的手段帮助我们掌握词的古义。分三方面谈:1)从字形上分析。如“劝”从“力”，可见本义是勉力、奋力。“醒”从酉，本义是酒醒。2)从语境上分析。如“童子莫对，垂头而睡。”证明“睡”的本义是“打瞌睡”。3)从成对使用的反义词、同义词上分析。如“进退”“高下”“富贫”“穷达”“治--乱”。4)从今语中保存的古词古义上去考察。如“款待”中的“款”古义是诚恳。“捐躯”中的“捐”古义是舍弃。“呼天抢地”中的“抢”古义是触、碰。“举世无双”中的“举”古义是“全”。等。
五、词的本义和引申义
1词的本义:多义词的几个意义，其中一个意义是词义引申的起点，这个意义就是词的本义。我们所讲的本义是指词在文献语言所使用的几个意义中作为引申派生起点的那个意义。
2、引申义和本义的关系:二者间的关系有远有近。1)近引申义同本义之间一般是一词多义的关系。2)远引申义同本义之间可以是一词多义，也可以是两个同源词。
3、依据什么来探求词的本义:
1)借助词的书写形式。如“诛”从言，本义是谴责。2)考察文献语言用例。如“狱”在先秦文献中都是“诉讼”、案件义，到汉代文献才有当“监狱”讲的，因而本义是“诉讼”。
4、词的引申义:在多义词的几个意义中，由本义派生出来的意义叫引申义。
5、引申义和本义的联系方式:
1)相似:a形貌性状相似。如“斗”由酌酒器引申为斗星。b功能作用相似。如“关”由门闩引申为关卡。c方式情态相似。如“奋”由鸟展翅引申为举起、扬起。2)相关。a甲事物对乙事物具有标志作用，借甲代乙。如“齿”由门牙、
牙齿引申为年龄。b借动作行为指代动作行为的主体或客体。如“倡”由领唱引申为一般的唱，再引申为以演唱为职业的人。C借形状特点指代事物或人。如“刚”由坚硬引申为金属钢。D借方位处所指代事物或人。如“陵”由大土山引申为帝王的坟墓。3)相因。引申义和本义间具有因果、条件等逻辑关系，通过推导实现引申。如“危”本义为陡峭、高峻。陡而高则易倾，故引申为不稳定。
6、词义引申的趋势:1)从个别到一般。如“江”从专称长江引申为泛指河流。2)从具体到抽象。如“道”由道路引申为途径、方法。
7、直接由本义派生出来的意义叫直接引申义。由直接引申义派生出来的意义，对本义来说，就是间接引申义。如“防”的本义;堤坝。直接引申义:堵水、防水。间接引申义:禁阻、防备、防止?约束?规范、。
8、引申的方式:1)以本义为起点，向着同一方向递相派生出几个意义的引申脉络，叫连锁式引申。如“防”。2)以本义为中心向不同的方向派生出数个直接引申义的词义引申脉络，叫辐射式引申。如“问”、“时”。
9、引申义的读音和书写形式:
1)通常是用一个字来表示的，读音也相同。2)有的后来为引申义另外造了字。如“解”ji由分割、分解引申为松懈、懈怠。改读(xi)后来写作“懈”。(3)有的只改变读音，未另造新字。如“说”(shu)由陈述、解说引申为劝说、说服。改读(shu)(4)有的读音未变，但却另造了新字。如“反”由翻转引申为返回，后来写作“返”。
10、研究词义引申的意义:1)举纲张目，以简驭繁。2)穷原竟委，加深理解。3)掌握规律，举一反三。
六、同义词的辨析
1同义词:是指意义相同或相近的词。
2同义词间的差别:1)范围广狭不同。如“人”和“民”，“民”的外延比“人”的小。它的范围是“人”当中被认为愚昧无知的部分。“问、询、访”三个词中“访”的适用范围比较小，通常指君长就重大问题向臣下征求意见。2)性状情态不同。如“坐、跪、跽。”3)程度深浅轻重不同。如“饥”是一般的饿，想吃东西。“饿”是严重的饿，指的是长时间未进食，受到死亡的威胁。另外，一般的病叫“疾”，病重叫“病”。一般了解叫“知”，深刻了解叫“识”。4)侧
重的方面不同。如“恭、敬”“恭”侧重外貌，“敬”侧重内心。5)感情色彩不同。如“诛、杀、弑”“杀”是中性，“诛”表示杀死有罪者，含罪有应得的肯定意味。“弑”用于下杀上，含犯上违礼、应予贬责的意味。6)语法功能不同。如“耻、辱”中“耻”作动词时是意动用法，意思是“以之为耻”。“辱”作动词时是使动用法，意思是“使之蒙受耻辱”。
3、辨析同义词的根据和方法:1)考察词在文献语言中的用例。2)借助训诂书中的词义训释。3)探索词义的引申派生关系。4)察看各自的反义词。
4、应该注意的几个问题:1)同义词的“同”是就义项讲的，而不是就词义系统讲的。一个词的词义系统包括该词的全部义项。不可能全部义项一一相同。如“盗”和“窃”。2)词义是发展的，同义关系是可变的。如“履”和“屦”。由于词义是发展变化的，在考察同义词的时候，应该注意词义的时代性和同义关系的可变性。3)有些同义词有用于泛指和用于特指的区别。意义有异有同的同义词，特指有别，泛指无别。如兽皮带毛的叫“皮”，去毛的叫“革”。
七、古代汉语的判断句
1、判断句是根据谓语的性质给分类得出来的一种句型。所谓判断句一般是用名词或名词性词组作谓语的句子，对事物的属性作出判断，即某事物是什么，或不是什么。
2、古代汉语判断句和现代汉语不同，一般是不用系词“是”的，而是在谓语后面加语气词“也”帮助判断。
3、关于“是”字:1)我们讲古代汉语不用“是”，是指文言文说的，至于白话，是用系词“是”的，先秦文献极少用系词“是”，汉代后有所增加。2)古代汉语里“是”可当形容词，词义是“对的”、“正确的”，意思是“认为„对”、“认为„正确”。出现在“名词+是+名词”的组合中。可单独作谓语，也可带宾语。3)“是”字本是一个指示代词，常常用来复指前文，系词“是”字正是从代词“是”的复指用法发展出来的。
4、古代汉语判断句的几种形式:1)“主+谓+也”，如:此王业也。2)“主+者+谓+也”，如:陈胜者，阳城人也。3)“主+者+谓”，如:兵者，凶器。4)“主+谓”，如:兵，凶器。5)“主+副+谓+(也)”如:“身非木石。”“此乃歌夫‘长铗归来’者也。”“此诚危急存亡之秋也。”6)“主+为+宾”，如:“余为伯倏。”
5、古代汉语判断句的表达功能:古代汉语判断句有两种基本表达功能，主谓语除了在句法上构成判断外，在逻辑上也构成判断关系:1)表示类属关系。如:陈胜者，阳城人也。2)表示等同关系。如:梁父即楚将项燕。另外，有些判断句主谓语在逻辑上并不构成判断关系，而是:1)表比喻。如:君者，舟也;庶人者，水也。2)表示主语和谓语之间有某种逻辑关系。如:夫战，勇气也。3)表示造成某种结果的原因。如:井蛙不可以语于海者，拘于虚也;夏虫不可以语于冰者，笃于时也。
古代汉语复习资料(二) 第八节古代汉语被动意义的表达方式
1 主动句:主语是谓语动词所表达动作行为的发出者，即施事者，如我读书。
2 被动句:主事是谓语动词所表达动作行为的接受者，即受事者，如杯子打破了。
3 古代汉语被动句的类型:
A 语义上表被动的句子:如“文王拘而演周易„„屈原放逐，乃赋离骚。”B 有句法标志的被动句:
(1 )“于”字句。
a “及物动词+ 于+ 施事者”如:楚怀王内惑于郑袖，外欺于张仪。
b 省略“于”字，“动+ 施事者”如:大树不夭斤斧，物无害者。
c “于”字句经常用于主动与被动对比的复句里。如:劳心者治人，劳力者治于人。
d “乎”(介词)的语法功能与介词“于”同。
(2 )“为”字句。a “为+ 施事者+ 及物动词”，如:(吾子)今为赤帝子斩之。b “为+ 及物动
词”，如:父母宗族，皆为戮没。
(3 )“见”字句。a “见+ 及物动词”如:人皆以见侮为辱。b “见+ 及物动词+ 于+ 施事者”，如:昔者弥子瑕见爱于卫君。c 南北朝后，“见+ 动词(主动句)”表示“对我怎样”，如“慈父见背”(慈父背弃我)。(不是被动句)(4 )“为„„所„„”句。a “为+ 施事+ 所+ 及物动词”。如:先即制人，后则为人所制。b “为+ 所+ 及物动词”，如:不者，若属皆且为所虏。c 东汉后，“为„„之所„„”
“为„„所见”在汉魏六朝常见，唐后消亡。
(4 )“为„„所”句。
a “为+ 施事+ 所+ 及物动词”，如:先即制人，后则为人所制。
b “为+ 所+ 及物动词”，如不者，若属皆且为所虏。
c 东汉后，“为„„之所„„”“为„„所见”在汉魏六朝常见，唐后消亡。
(5 )“被字句”。
a “被+ 施事者+ 及物动词”如:臣被尚书召问。
b 先秦“被”是及物动词，意为“复盖、遭受、蒙受”，如:光被四表。
c 汉代后，至今，“被+ 及物动词”。如:杯子被打破了。
第九节古代汉语句子成分的位置和省略
1 宾语前置:古代汉语的宾语在某些特定的语法条件下要置于动词之前，这种现象我们称之为宾语前
置。
2 宾语前置的种类:
(1 )疑问句中疑问代词作宾语前置。
a 作动词的宾语前置。如:吾谁欺，欺天乎,
b 在介宾结构中，作介词的宾语前置。如:谚曰:“谁为为之，孰令听之。”需要注意的是:
a 个别用“为”字的句子，疑问代词作宾语不前置，如“子为谁,”
b “如何”是“如之何”的紧缩，意思是“对之怎么样”，“何”不是真正的宾语，不受疑问代词作
宾语前置规律的制约。
c “何如”语义同“如何”，译为“怎么样”，是疑问代词作宾语前置结构。
d “奈何”“若何”情况同“如何”一样，何不是真正的宾语，不前置。
(2 )否定句中，指示代词或人称代词作宾语前置。如“日月逝矣，岁不我与。”、“臣未之闻也。”。有两种不能前置的情况:宾语不是代词，而是名词性成分。如“吾不能早用子。”两个否定词构成双重否定，其中的代词宾语一般不前置。如:莫弗称之。
(3 )用代词复指的宾语前置。古代汉语叙述句的宾语都可以置于动词之前，
但有一个必要的条件，宾语必须用代词复指，常用于复指宾语的代词有“之”和“是”。如:“岂不谷是为,先君之好是继。”“侨闻为国非不能事大字小之难，无礼以定其位之患”。
另外，有两种情况:a “惟(唯)+ 宾语+ 是(之)+ 动词”，这种格式使宾语表达的事物得到进一步的强调，如“惟余马首是瞻。”意思是“惟瞻余马首”。这类前置宾语也可以由代词充任，用以复指宾语的代词只用“之”。如“其斯之谓与,”b “此(是)之谓„„”是一种固定格式，意思是“叫这作„”或“是说这个吧”。代词“是”作宾语有时不需要复指就可以置于动词之前。如“昭王南征而不复，寡人是问。”
3 、谓语前置:古代汉语的一些句子，谓语在主语之前，称之为谓语前置。有两种句子里谓语前置的现象比较多见。(1 )表示疑问的句子。如:何哉，尔所谓达者,(2 )表示感叹的句子。如:贤哉，回也～
4 、动量成分的位置:古代汉语一般只用单个数词表示动作行为的量，数词可以处在两种语法位置上。(1 )在动词前作状语。如“三战三北”。(2 )在动词性成分后加上代词“者”，后面再加上数词，让数词作谓语，表示动作行为的量。如“范增数目项王，举所佩玉玦以示之三。”
5 、主语的省略:(1 )承上省略:在复句中第一分句出现了主语，如果后几个分句的主语与第一分句相同，那么后几个分句的主语就可以省略。如:邴夏曰:“射其御者，()君子也。”(2 )蒙下省略:前几个分句的主语蒙最后一分句的主语而省。如:七月()在野，八月()在宇，九月()在户，十月蟋蟀入我床下。
6 、宾语的省略:这在古代汉语里是常见的。有:(1 )宾语表达的事物在前文已经谈到，宾语就可以省略。如:尉剑挺，广起，夺()而杀尉。(2 )介词的宾语也可以省略。如:(项伯)欲呼张良与()俱去。
第十节古代汉语词类活用
1 、词类的活用:有些词可以按照一定的表达习惯而灵活运用，在句子中临时改变它的词性和基本功能，这种现象就叫作词类活用。如“从左右，皆肘之”。句中的“肘”是名词，在此临时用作动词，意为“用肘撞”。
2 、使动用法:是指谓语动词具有“使宾语怎么样”的意思。
3 、动词的活用:(1 )不及物动词的使动用法:不及物动词本来不带宾语，
如果带上宾语时，一般是用作使动，表示主语使宾语发生该动词所表示的动作或行为。如:“庄公寤生，惊姜氏。”“惊”意为“使„„惊”。(2 )及物动词的使动用法:这种情况较为少见。及物动词本来就可带宾语，在形式上和用作使动没有区别，区别只在意义上。如“沛公旦日从百余骑来见项王。”中的“从”只能是“使„„跟从”。
4 、形容词的活用:(1 )形容词用作一般动词，如果形容词在叙述句里充当谓语，就是活用为动词。如:“益烈山泽而焚之。”“烈”形容大火，这里是“放大火烧”。(2 )形容词的使动用法:是指使它所带的宾语具有该形容词所表示的性质或状态。如“其达士，洁其居，美其服，饱其食。”“洁”“美”“饱”原是形容词，在句中都是使动用法，分别译为“使„„清洁”“使„„华美”“使„„饱”。(3 )形容词的意动用法:是指谓语具有“认为宾语怎么样”或“把宾语看作什么”的意思。如:“甘其食，美其服，安其居，乐其俗。”句中的“甘”“美”“安”“乐”是形容词的意动用法，译为“认为„„香甜”“认为„„华美”“认为„„安逸”“认为„„快乐”。
5 、名词的活用:(1 )名词用作一般动词:如:“范增数目项王”中“目”是“用目光示意”的意思。(2;)名词的使动用法:就是指名词用作动词时，使它的宾语成为该名词所表示的人或事物，或者发生与该名词有关的动作行为。如:“然得而腊之以为饵，可以已大风、挛踠、瘘、疠。”“腊”原义为“干肉”，动词。在此句中用作使动用法“使(之)成为干肉”。(3 )名词的意动用法:就是把宾语所代表的人或事物看成这个名词所表示的人或事物。如“友风而子雨”意为“把风当作朋友，把雨当作儿子”。(4 )名词用作状语，在古代汉语中相当普遍，本不属于活用范畴，只是为了叙述方便，在此介绍。
6 、名词作状语的类型:(1 )表示处所。如“黎丘之鬼效其子之状，扶而道苦之。”“道”意为“在道路上”作“苦”的状语。又如“横历天下，廷说诸侯之王”。“廷”意为“在朝廷”。(2 )表示行为的工具或依据。如“失期，法皆斩”，“法”意为“依照法律”。(3 )表示对人的态度。如“秦军降诸侯，诸侯多奴虏使之。”“奴虏”译为“象对奴虏一样”。(4 )表示比喻。如“嫂蛇行匍伏，四拜自跪而谢”句中，“蛇”译为“象蛇一样”。再如“天下云集而响应，赢粮而景从。”句中“云”“响”“景”是名词作状语。分别译为“象云一样(聚集)”“象回声一
样(应和)”“象影子一样(跟从)”。
7 、古代汉语名词、形容词活用为动词的识别:
(1 )名+ 名。a 名动+ 名?动宾，如“王天下”。b 名+ 名动?主谓。如“陈胜王”。c 名动+(于)+ 名?述补。如“王关中”，应看成是“王于关中”。
(2 )形动+ 名?动宾。如“素善留侯张良”。
(3 )名、形动+ 之、我?动宾。如“妻之”“安我”。
(4 )助动词、“所”、副词+ 名、形动?合成谓语、“所”字结构、状中结构。如“非能水”“所耕”“不雨”。
(5 )名动+ 介词结构?述补。如“风乎舞雩”。
(6 )名动+ 而+ 动?动词性联合结构，如“衣冠而见之”。
8 、使动用法与意动用法的识别:(1 )名、形、动词都可以用作使动;而只有名、形可以有意动用法，动词无意动。(2 )使动是使宾语“做什么、怎么样”，是客观的结果。意动是认为宾语“怎么样”，把宾语“当作什么”，是主观的看法、意念。如:“其达士，洁其居，美其服，饱其食。”和“甘其食，美其服，安其居，乐其俗。”两句很相似，但从上下文意的分析中可知前句是客观行为，是使动，
后句是主观看法，是意动。
9 、名词作状语的识别:名主+ 名状+ 动
古代汉语复习资料(三)
第十一节代词
1 疑问代词:根据疑问代词指代的询问对象，古汉语疑问代词可分三类。(1 )指人的。有“谁、孰”。a “谁”用于一般问句，可作主、宾、定、语及判断句的谓语。b “孰”用于选择问句，一般有先行词。如:“吾与徐公孰美,”译为“哪一个”，一般只作主语。它还可指物、处所。“孰与介”表比较:如“吾孰与徐公美,”;用于反问句中，表肯定:“惟坐待亡，孰与伐之。”有“哪里比得上”的意思。
(2 )指物的。有“何、胡、奚、曷”等。“何”:作主、宾、定、判谓，a 常用来询问原因或方法，如:“许子何不为陶冶,”译为“什么”“为什么”;b 询问处所，如“子欲何之,”译为“哪里”。“胡、奚、曷”经常a 作状语，用来询问原因，相当于“为什么”或“怎么”，如“子奚乘是车也,”;b 它们也经常
作介词的宾语前置，如“胡为”“曷为”，询问原因。c “奚以”询问方法。
(3 )指处所。有“安、恶、焉”。a 它们主要作状语，询问处所。相当于现代的“在哪里”。如“焉置土石,”;b 也可作前置宾语，用来询问处所。如“沛公安在,”c 还可以用于反问句，作状语，加强反问语气。类似于“哪里”。d “焉”用于反问句后虚化了，不再实指处所。如“今弗爱其子，安能爱君,”
2 、指示代词:(1 )“之、兹、其”，表泛指和特指。a “其”特指代词只作定语。b “之、兹”泛指，c “之”作定、宾。
(2 )“此、是、斯”近指。a 表示“这”义。b 作主、定、宾语。c “此、是”可作判断谓语。d此和彼对应。
(3 )“彼、夫”远指。a 表“那”义。b “彼”指代性强，可作主、定宾语。c “夫”指示性较弱，多作定语。
(4 )“尔、若、然”，谓词性。a 表“如此”“象这(那)样”义。b 在先秦，“尔”作定、宾语。c “若”只作定语。d “然”多作谓语。
(5 )“焉、诸”特殊的指示代词。a “焉”相当“于此(之)”，常作补语。如“过而能改，善莫大焉。”b 一部分“焉”在句末虚化成语气词，表提示。如“我二十五年矣，又如是而嫁，则就木焉。”c “诸”是代词“之”和介词“于”或语气词“乎”的合音形式。d 相当“之于”的“诸”用在叙述句里，如“投诸渤海之尾”;e 相当“之乎”的“诸”用在疑问句里，如“不识有诸,”。
3 人称代词:(1 )第一人称代词，有“我、吾、余、予”。a 它们都可作定、主、宾语。b “吾”一般只在否定句里作前置宾语，c 而在肯定句里一般用“我”作宾语。d “朕”先秦时意同“我”，秦朝后，是皇帝自称。
(2 )第二人称，有“女(汝)、尔、若”。a 它们可作主、定、宾语。b “而、乃”一般只作定语。
(3 )第三人称，a “彼”出现率不高，一般作主语，个别用作宾语，仍有指示性，有轻蔑意味。b“之、其”出现率很高，“之”只作宾语，“其”只作定语。
(4 )第一、二人称代词后，加“侪、辈、属、曹”表复数。如“不者，若属皆且为所虏。”
4 、无定代词:这是古代汉语特有的一类代词。它们只能作主语。
(1 )“或”:表肯定。a 意“有的人”、“某人”、“有的(东西)”。b 前有先行词，
“或”指代其中一个人或一些人。如“宋人或得玉”。c 句中连续出现几个“或”，构成排比。如“或百步而后止，或五十步而后止。”“或”指“有的人”，不能表示选择。
(2 )“莫”:表广泛的否定。a 若没有先行词，表示一种不强调范围的否定，一般都指人。如“保民而王，莫之能御”;b 若有先行词，表强调范围的否定，指人又指物。如“国人莫敢言，道路以目。”c 汉以后，“莫”发展出了否定副词的用法，表示禁止性的否定，相当于“不要”。d 也可以表示一般性否定，相当于“不”。
5 、辅助性代词:这类代词有“所、者”，它们有一定的指代作用，但不能单独充当句子成分。
(1 )“所”:基本语法功能是加在谓词性成分前，指代某种动作的对象，组成所字结构，使谓词性成分名词化。名词、形容词出现在“所”后也变成动词了。可分三类:a “所+ 动词”。如“所载”“所画”，意思为“载的东西”“画的事物”。中心语在语义上都是动词的宾语，即受事者。b “所+ 介词+谓词性成分”，如“是吾剑之所从坠。”中心语在语义上是介词的宾语。译为“坠下去的地方。”c “所+ (介词)+ 谓词性成分”表达的语义同第二种结构。其中心语实际上是介词的宾语。如“所杀大臣，多吕后力。”可以认为“所”后省略了介词“以”，是指“杀大臣凭借的力量”。
(2 )“者”:基本语法功能是位于词或词组之后，构成者字结构，表示“„的人”“„的事物”。可分两类a :“谓词性成分+ 者”，如“赦之，以劝事君者”。代词“者”加在谓词性成分后，可使谓词性成分名词化。b “名词性成分(名词、所字结构)+ 者”起复指名词性成分的作用，使这个名词性成分得到强调。如“陈胜者，阳城人也。”者字结构表示施事者。
第十二节副词
1 副词:是一种只能充当状语的虚词，它虽然有一定的词汇意义，但不能表示具体事物、动作行为或性质状态，而只能表示动作行为、性质状态的时间、程度、范围、肯定否定或情态、证据。它一般是修饰动词性词语或形容词性词语，在判断句中修饰名词性词语。
2 、时间副词:(1 )表动作行为发生在过去的时间。a “向、乡”是同一个
副词，只是写法不同，译为“从前、刚才”;b “既、业”表示动作行为已经完成，相当于“已经”:“c 尝”“曾”表示过去做过某事，译为“曾经”。先秦只用“尝”，汉代后用“曾”。
(2 )表示动作行为正在进行或正在实现的时间，有“方、正、适、会”等。a “方”一般只用在动词性词语前面，译作“正在”;b “适、会”还可作用在主语前面，译作“正遇上”。
(3 )表示动作行为将要进行的时间，有“行、将、且、垂”等。在动词前作状语。可译为“将要、快要、就要”。
(4 )表示动作行为的久暂，有“俄、暂、姑、常、雅、素”等。“俄、暂”是表示时间短暂的，相当于“一会儿”“不久”。a “姑”意为“暂且”;b “常、雅、素”表示时间长久。“常”相当于“经常、时常”，“雅、素”相当于平素、一向。
3 、范围副词:(1 )表示总括:包括无遗或很少例外的副词，有“皆、尽、毕、悉、举、咸、具、凡、都、共、率”等。a “毕、举”是表示都、全部的意思，b “凡”意有二，一是用在句子前面表示规律性的归纳，表示“凡是”、“大凡”;二是用在数词前面表示总括事物的数量或动作的数量，相当于“总共、共”;c “率”也表示总括，意思相当于大都、大致。
(2 )表示范围小或有限制或有例外的副词。有“但、特、只、直、止、第、独、徒、仅、唯”等。a 它们都有“只、仅仅”的意思。b “仅”除了表示“只”的意思，在唐代表示数量多，有“几乎、将近、差不多达到”的意思，读jin.c “唯”表“只有”。
4 、程度副词。可分三类:(1 )表示程度高的。a “最、至、极、绝”表示最高度，意思是“最”;b “大”意思是“十分”;c “太”意思是指程度上超过一定的限度;d “殊、特、尤、良”的意思是特别、非常。e “良”在汉代与“久”连用，表很久意。六朝以后修饰其他词语，是的确、很的意思。f“甚”六朝前，既作状语，也作谓语、定语，是形容词，六朝后，才专作状语成为程度很高的副词。
(2 )表示程度不深、轻微的副词，有“少、稍、微、略、颇”等。都是稍微、略微的意思。a 先秦表示这类意思的一般用“少”，汉代以后才用“略、微、颇”，
b 唐宋后“稍”才由表逐渐义的情态副词分化出程度副词的用法。
(3 )表示程度在原有基础上的加深加重。有“加、更、愈、益、弥、兹(滋)”等，相当于“更、越、更加”。
5 、情态副词。分三小类;(1 )表示动作行为进行的方式，a “俱、并”表示几个施动者一起做某件事;b “闲、微、窃”表示秘密地、暗中地做某件事;c “帮”表示故意特意;d “固”表示坚决地做某件事。
(2 )表示动作行为发生或进行的速度。a “暂”两属:强调时间的短暂时(一会儿、短时间)，是时间副词;强调动作的突然性时，属情态副词。b “遽”表示匆忙急迫;c “卒(猝)”表示时间急促突然;d “立、即、旋”表示事或行为紧接着发生;f “稍、渐”表示动作的逐渐性;g “益”汉代后也产生了逐渐义。唐前是程度副词，“更加”义。
(3 )表示动作行为进行的频率。a “数、亟、累、屡、仍”表示动作多次出现;b “辄”表示同一动作行为的多次重复相当于往往、总是;c “每”表示反复出现的情况或动作中的任何一次;d “复”表示重复进行同一动作。
6 、语气副词。分五小类:(1 )表示确认的语气。a “乃、即”相当于“就是”;b “必、定”相当于“一定”;c “诚、信”相当于“实在、的确”d “果”相当于“果真”。
(2 )表示委婉的测度、商榷或论议语气。a “其、盖、殆”相当于“大概(是)、恐怕(是)”。b “盖”大多用在句首，既表示猜测性的论断语气，又带有提示的语气;也可用在谓语前面，表“大概”意。
(3 )表示出自意外的惊异语气，常用的有“曾”多与否定副词“不”连用，相当于“竟然”。如“老臣病足，曾不能疾走。”
(4 )表示祈使语气。“其”用在祈使句中，有希望、请求、劝勉的意思，可译为“希望、还是”等。
(5 )表示反诘的语气，常用的有“岂、其、庸、巨(讵)宁”等，意思相当于“难道、哪里、怎么”，有时不能译出。
7 否定副词。a “不”和“弗”都表示一般的否定，“不”的用法较宽，“弗”在秦汉前使用范围相当窄，通常只用在及物动词前，后面也不再出现宾语。b “毋”和“勿”通常用在祈使句中，表示禁止或劝阻，意思是“不要”。“勿”有时也用
作一般性的否定。“毋”也写作“无”。
c “未”是表示情况还没有出现或动作还没有进行，相当于“没有”。
d “非”一般用于名词性谓语前，表示否定判断;有时含有假设性的否定，相当于“若不是”，如“吾非至于子之门，则殆矣。”有时也可用于叙述句和描写句，表示对行为和性质的否认。
e “微”可用在单句中表示否定，与“非”相当;又可表示假设性的否定，相当于“若不是”;还可同副词“独”结合，表示“不但(如此)”。
f “否”不作谓语的修饰成分，而与谓语并用，构成肯定否定迭用的句子，表示否定的一面。或单用，构成独词句。
8 、指代性的副词“相”和“见”。它们用在及物动词前面作状语，指代动词后面的宾语。(1 )“相”，a 表互指，意为“相互”。如“今梁赵相攻，轻兵锐卒必竭于外。”b 表偏指，即指代动作受事者的一方，不包括动作施事者。如“时时为安慰，久久莫相忘”，意是“莫忘我”。
(2 )“见”a 原是助动词，用在动词前表示主语是动作的受事者;b 魏晋南北朝时期又演变为副词，用在及物动词前，表示对他人所发动作行为的接受，有指代宾语的作用。可译作“自己”或“我”。
9 、谦敬副词。a 表敬副词:“请、敬、谨、幸、惠、辱、猥、垂、蒙”等。b 表谦副词。有:“敢、窃、忝、猥、伏”等。应注意动词“请”和表敬副词“请”的用法。作动词时表示“请求对方做”;作副词时表示“请允许我做”。如:“请京，使居之。”“欲与大叔，臣请事之。”前句是动词，后句是表敬副词。
第十三节介词和连词
一、介词
1 、介词是由动词虚化而来的词类，它在句中的作用仍带有动词性质的痕迹。它能带宾语，但不能单独进入句子结构，更不能充当谓语。大约有“于(於、乎)、以、因、由、为、自、从、与、及”等十几个。
2 、介词的语法特点:(1 )介词带宾语，有时宾语前置。(参见第九节)(2 )古代汉语中介词的宾语大多可以省略。(“于”字的宾语不能)(3 )在语法功能上，古代汉语由“因、为、与、从”等组成的介词结构一般作状语，但“于”字介宾结构表时间处所意义的还可做补语。“以”字结构表工具方式的既可做状语，又可
作补语。
3 、于(於、乎):用法有四种:(1 )引进动作行为的时间、处所或动作行为所涉及的范围，组成介宾结构，作句子的补语或状语。译为“在、从、到”或“在„„中”“在„„方面”等。(2 )引进动作行为涉及的对象，组成介宾结构，作补语或状语，可译为“向、跟、给、对、对于”等。(3 )引进比较的对象，组成介宾结构在形容词和表心理活动的动词后面作补语，译作“比”。(4 )引进动作行为的主动者，组成介宾结构作动词的补语，译作“被”。此外:(1 )介词“于”和代词“是”结合，构成介宾关系的凝固词组，在句中作状语，意思是“从此”“在这里”“在这个时候”或“在这种情况下”。后来虚化为连词，一般用在句子的开头表承接。(2 )“乎”:用作介词，其作用与“于”或“於”基本相同，可以引进动作行为的处所、时间、对象等，译为在、比、到、向等。乎的使用频率较低，“乎”字结构一般只作补语，一般也不引进主动者。
4 、“以”:原是动词，义同“用”，由此虚化为介词。主要用法大致有以下几种:(1 )引进动作行为的工具、手段，可译为“用”“拿”。
(2 )引进动作行为连带的人，这是一种行为方式。我们以“率领”来翻译它。如“宫之奇以其族行”(宫之奇率领他的族人离开了虞国。)这也许是动词的残存用法，但是已经虚化，与介词“以”难以分开。
(3 )引进动作行为的条件、依据、标准等，“以”字结构通常作状语，可译为“凭着、依靠、按照”等。
(4 )引进动作行为所处置或涉及的对象。可译为“把”，或不译。
(5 )引进情况出现和动作行为发生的原因、理由。可译为“把”。
(6 )引进动作行为发生的时间或范围，相当于“于”，可译为“在”。
此外，(1 )“有以”、“无以”是动词“有、无”和介词“以”组成的凝固结构，相当于“有东西(或办法)用来„„”、“没有东西(或办法)用来„„”的意思。这种结构只能作状语。(2 )“以故”是“由于这个原因”、“根据这种情况”、“用这个东西”的意思。(3 )“是以”是宾语前置的介宾结构，意思是“因此”，用于句子开头表示结果。
5 、“因”:本义是茵席(坐垫)，名词。引申为依靠、凭借的意思，动词。介词“因”即由动词“因”虚化而来，由它组成的介宾结构充当句子的状语。有两
种用法:(1 )表示动作行为的条件、依据或中介，有“凭着„”“趁着„”、“通过„”之类的意思。
(2 )表示动作行为的原因或理由，有“因为„”“由于„”之类的意思。
6 、“为”:原是动词，读wei ，常用基本义是做。虚化为介词。读wei.它的用法有五种:(1 )引进动作的服务对象，可译为“替”、“给”等。这种用法至今仍保留。(2 )引进动作行为的目的，可译为“为了”。(3 )引进动作行为的原因，可译为“因为”。(4 )引进动作行为的涉及的对象，可译为“跟”“对”“向”。(5 )引进动作行为的主动者，在被动句中作状语，或构成“为+ 名词(或代词)+ 所+ 动词”的句式，读wei.
7 、“与”:原来也是动词，基本意义是帮助、给予、参与。由此虚化为介词。主要用法有三种:(1 )引进动作的服务对象，可译为“为”“替”“给”。(2 )引进动作行为的参与者，可译为“跟”“同”。(3 )引进比较的对象，可译为“跟”、“跟„„相比”。
二、连词:是连接词、词组或句子以帮助表示两项或几项之间的语法关系或逻辑关系的虚词。古代汉语常用的连词有“与及以并且而则况矧但第抑虽然至即
使如若苟倘令藉设故”等。
1 、“与”:(1 )一般是连接体词(名词、代词)或体词性词组，组成联合结构，表示并列关系，可译作“和”。(2 )有时也连接谓词性成分，表示选择关系，可译为“或者”“还是”。如“杀人以梃与刀，有以异乎,”(3 )可以连接分句和分句，构成并列复句，表示选择。通常与其他虚词配合，构成“与„„不如”“与„„不若”“与„„宁”“与其„„不如”“与其„„孰若”等格式，可译为“与其„„宁可(不如)”。
2 、“与”既可作介词，又可作连词需要加以区别:(1 )介词“与”带宾语，组成介宾结构，通常在动词前作状语;连词“与”用在联合关系的成分中构成名词或动词性词组，“与”字本身不充当语法成分。(2 )介词前面可以用副词修饰，连词不能。
3 、“且”:既是副词，又是连词。用作副词有“将要、将近、暂且、姑且”等意思，在动词或数词前作状语;连词“且”只起连接作用，不能独立充当句法成分。
4 、“且”的具体用法:(1 )在并列关系的谓语成分中，连接形容词和形容词，表示同时具有两种属性或存在两种状态，译作“又„„又„„”;连接动词和动词，译作“一边„„一边„„”。(2 )用在一句开头，连接分句与分句或段落与段落，表示意思上更进一层，译为“并且”“而且”“况且”等。(3 )用在偏句主语后，以作陪衬，说明另一事情程度更严重，以引起后面正句的进层推论，这种推论又多用反问来表达。“且”可译作“尚且”。(4 )用在后一分句的开头以与前一分句相连接，表示在两项或多项之间作一选择，译作“还是”。 5 、“以”:既是介词又是连词，连词“以”是从介词“以”虚化而来。常见用法有五:
(1 )连接动词和动词、形容词和形容词，表示前后两项的并列关系，译作“又”。
(2 )连接动词和动词，表示两项动作行为的连续性和时间上的紧相承接，可译为“来”，也可不译。
(3 )连接前后两个动词性成分，表示后一项动作行为是前一项动作行为的目的和结果，可译为“来”“以便”“以致”等。
(4 )连接前后两个动词性的成分，表示前项动作行为是后项动作行为进行的条件、方式，但在句法结构上仍是平等的联合关系，而不是偏正关系。可译为“来”，或不译。
(5 )连接状语和动词中心语，表示前项是动作进行的时间、条件、状态。这种“以”字用法与“而”相近。根据上下文的表达方式可译可不译。
6 、“而”:(1 )连接谓词性词语或分句，两项之间的意义是并列关系，“而”可译为“又”，也可不译。有时连接名词性词语，那是因为谓语具有说明事理或描写情况的性质。
(2 )连接谓词性词语或分句，前后两项所表示的动作行为或状况在时间上是先后紧相承接或事理上有进层、原因、条件和方式等关系，“而”字有时可随文译为“又”“而且”“因而”“就”。
(3 )连接谓词性词语或分句，前后两项在事理上是不一致的，构成了转接的关系。可译为“却”“可是”。
(4 )连接主语和谓语，有时表示谓语的情况是设想的，有时表示主语不应出现谓语的情况。从意义关系来看，属于逆接，可译为“如果”或“却”。(5 )连接
状语和中心语，表示偏正关系，在语义上属顺接，“而”字一般不译出。
7 、“则”:(1 )用在结果分句的开头，承接前一分句，表示二分句在事理上是条件和结果的关系。可译为“那么就”。
(2 )连接动词性词语或动词作谓语的分句。两种动作行为或两件事虽无必然的条件关系，但两者的出现在时间上是紧密相承的。“则”可译为“就”。
(3 )用在两个以上的并列分句中，表示列举或对比相关的情况下，结果是不同的。
(4 )连接动词性词语或分句，前后两项的相关出现，含有转折意味。这里又可分为三小类:a 表前后两项相反，可译为“却”“反而”等。b 表后项行为是前项动作施事者未曾料到的，译作“却”或“原来已经”。c 表让步关系，可译作“固然”“虽然”“倒是”等。如“善则善矣，未可以战也。”(好倒是好„„)
(5 )表假设关系。
8 、“则”和“而”的区别:(1 )“则”今义是“就”，“而”今无相当词。(2 )“则”重在表示连接项的先后相承，连接项之间有顿挫的意味:“而”却重在过递，连接项之间是连贯的。(3 )“而”a 连接项之间的关系可以是平等的，也可
以是相反的;b “则”连接项之间的关系却只能是前后相承的，不能相反。
9 、“虽”是表示让步关系的连词分为(1 )事实让步，译为“虽然”。(2 )假设让步。译为“即使”“纵然”。
10、“虽然”:在古代，这是两个词，“虽”，连词:“然”，代词。合在一起通常自成一个分句，表示承接上文，以引起下文的转折，意思是“虽然如此”或“即使如此”。六朝以后，逐渐虚化为连词了。
11、“然”:原是指示代词，意思是“这样”，虚化为连词，表示转折，意思相当于“但是、可是”。
12、“然而”是指示代词“然”和转折连词“而”的连用。“然”字总结上文，“而”字引起下文的转折，意思是“这样却”“虽然如此，可是”。
13、“然则”是指示代词“然”与连词“则”的连用。“然”总结上文，“则”引起下文的推论，意思是“既然如此，那就”。
14、“之”原是动词，意思是“到„„去”;又借作指示代词，常用来表示复指;逐步虚化为连词，(1 )连接定语和中心语组成偏正结构，相当于“的”。这是
它的主要用法。(2 )连接主语和谓语，使主谓结构变为定中关系的名词性词组，在句中充当主语、宾语、判断句的谓语和时间状语。(即取消句子独立性的用法)(3 )用在主谓间，使它变成一个分句用在另一个分句的前面。第(2 )(3 )类的“之”一般不译。
第十四节语气词
一、语气词的分类:1 )按照语气词在句中的位置和作用，可分为:(1 )句首语气词有:“夫盖维惟唯”。(2 )句中语气词有:“盖也与”(3 )句尾语气词有:“也矣乎哉已耳焉与邪夫兮”等。2 )按照语气作用，可分为(1 )陈述语气词:“也矣已耳焉”(2 )疑问语气词有“乎与邪”(3 )感叹语气词有“哉夫兮”。
二、句尾语气词:1 、“也”:表静态，通常用在判断句尾表确认肯定的判断语气。用在陈述、祈使、疑问句尾时，都表论断、确认语气。并不是在判断语气之外，又表示陈述、祈使、疑问语气。用在复句中后一分句的末尾，是表示对这一分句的确认语气。
2 、“矣”:主要用于叙述句尾，同时也常用于其他类型的句子(复句的后分句、描写句、疑问句)，表示把已经或者将会出现的新情况告诉人们的陈述语气，是动态的。相当于“了”。
3 、“已”同“矣”的作用相近，原是动词，表示停止、限止语气，表示事实止于这种情况，有往小里说的意思。一般可译为“了”或“啦”。 4 、“耳”:是“而已”的合音。一般用在叙述句尾，动词性减弱，可译为“罢了”。
5 、“焉”是一个有指代作用的语气词，用于叙述句和描写句尾，表提示性的陈述语气。(1 )一般用在不及物动词或动宾词组后面，既表示“于(介词)+ 是(此)”的意思，又表示提示性的煞尾语气。如“积土成山，风雨兴焉;积水成渊，蛟龙生焉。”(2 )用在形容词谓语后面，隐含“于是”而指代比较对象。如“晋国，天下莫强焉。”(3 )用在及物动词后，相当于代词宾语“之”，指代作用更明显一些。如“非曰能之，愿学焉。”(4 )如果“焉”所指代的对象、时间、处所，在本句中的前一部分已经出现了，那么“焉”就不兼指代作用，而虚化为纯粹的句尾语气词了。如“南方有鸟焉，名曰蒙鸠。”
6 、“乎”:是使用频率最高的疑问语气词。(1 )用在是非问句尾，(是非问是把事情的正面说出来，然后希望对方作出肯定或否定的回答)。译为“吗”。(2 )
用在选择问句尾，(选择问是列举两种或两种以上的情况，用疑问形式提出来，要求对方从中选择一种作出回答。)译为“呢”。(3 )用在特指问句尾，(特指问是用疑问代词提出所问内容，要求对方就疑问代词所指来回答。)可译为“呢”。(4 )用在反问句尾，(反问句是无疑而问，是用疑问的形式来表示明确的肯定或否定意思，一般不需要回答。)可译为“吗”或“呢”。(5 )“得无„„乎”“无乃„„乎”可译为“该不会„„吧”“只怕„„吧”。“乎”仍是疑问语气。(6 )用于祈使句尾。仍是疑问语气词，只是句中的祈请或感叹语调是主要的，“乎”的疑问语气相应减弱了，带有疑虑未定的色彩。
7 、“与(歟)、邪(耶)”:(1 )疑问语气没有“乎”那样强烈纯粹，它们也可用在各种类型的疑问句尾，可译为“呢”“吗”“吧”。(2 )同“其”“得无”“无乃”等词语配合，表示委婉的疑问语气。
8 、“哉”:(1 )用在感叹句尾是表示强烈的感叹语气的，可译为“啊”。(2 )用于反问句尾更为常见，依然是表示感叹语气。译为“啊”。
9 、“夫”:用在感叹句尾表示的感叹语气偏于惋惜悲伤的情绪，仍译为“啊”。
10、“兮”:一般用于韵文的感叹句尾，可译为“啊”“呀”。
11、句尾语气词的连用:语气的重心一般都落在最后一个语气词上面。
三、句首语气词
1 、“夫”是从指示代词虚化而来的，(1 )用在句首表示提出话题、引进议论或引出常理以转入正论的语气，不译。又称发语词。(2 )与“且、故、若)今”等组成固定词组，用在句首表示进层)假设)结果等问题的议论语气。
2 、“盖”:(1 )作句首语气词时用于发议论。不译。(2 )用在句中主语后谓语前，表示猜测或解释性的语气，意思为“大概”“可能是”，我们处理为语气副词。
3 、“唯(惟、维)”(1 )用在句首，有两种作用:一种是表示提示性的语气。这种用法多见于《诗经》《尚书》。加一种作用是表示期望的语气，一般写作“唯”。(2 )用在句中，表示限制范围)帮助判断)解释原由，有修饰谓语作用，译为“只(是))就是”等，我们处理作语气副词。
四、句中语气词
1 、“也”用在句中表示提顿语气，有提砂下文舒缓节奏的作用。有时用在并列的词组后面，表示顿宕语气。
2 、“与”用在句中，表示顿宕舒缓语气。
第十一节代词
1 疑问代词:根据疑问代词指代的询问对象，古汉语疑问代词可分三类。(1 )指人的。有“谁、孰”。a “谁”用于一般问句，可作主、宾、定、语及判断句的谓语。b “孰”用于选择问句，一般有先行词。如:“吾与徐公孰美,”译为“哪一个”，一般只作主语。它还可指物、处所。“孰与介”表比较:如“吾孰与徐公美,”;用于反问句中，表肯定:“惟坐待亡，孰与伐之。”有“哪里比得上”的意思。
(2 )指物的。有“何、胡、奚、曷”等。“何”:作主、宾、定、判谓，a 常用来询问原因或方法，如:“许子何不为陶冶,”译为“什么”“为什么”;b 询问处所，如“子欲何之,”译为“哪里”。“胡、奚、曷”经常a 作状语，用来询问原因，相当于“为什么”或“怎么”，如“子奚乘是车也,”;b 它们也经常作介词的宾语前置，如“胡为”“曷为”，询问原因。c “奚以”询问方法。
(3 )指处所。有“安、恶、焉”。a 它们主要作状语，询问处所。相当于现代的“在哪里”。如“焉置土石,”;b 也可作前置宾语，用来询问处所。如“沛公安在,”c 还可以用于反问句，作状语，加强反问语气。类似于“哪里”。d “焉”用于反问句后虚化了，不再实指处所。如“今弗爱其子，安能爱君,”
2 、指示代词:(1 )“之、兹、其”，表泛指和特指。a “其”特指代词只作定语。b “之、兹”泛指，c “之”作定、宾。
(2 )“此、是、斯”近指。a 表示“这”义。b 作主、定、宾语。c “此、是”可作判断谓语。d此和彼对应。
(3 )“彼、夫”远指。a 表“那”义。b “彼”指代性强，可作主、定宾语。c “夫”指示性较弱，多作定语。
(4 )“尔、若、然”，谓词性。a 表“如此”“象这(那)样”义。b 在先秦，“尔”作定、宾语。c “若”只作定语。d “然”多作谓语。
(5 )“焉、诸”特殊的指示代词。a “焉”相当“于此(之)”，常作补语。如“过而能改，善莫大焉。”b 一部分“焉”在句末虚化成语气词，表提示。如“我二十五年矣，又如是而嫁，则就木焉。”c “诸”是代词“之”和介词“于”或语气词“乎”的合音形式。d 相当“之于”的“诸”用在叙述句里，如“投诸渤
海之尾”;e 相当“之乎”的“诸”用在疑问句里，如“不识有诸,”。
3 人称代词:(1 )第一人称代词，有“我、吾、余、予”。a 它们都可作定、主、宾语。b “吾”一般只在否定句里作前置宾语，c 而在肯定句里一般用“我”作宾语。d “朕”先秦时意同“我”，秦朝后，是皇帝自称。
(2 )第二人称，有“女(汝)、尔、若”。a 它们可作主、定、宾语。b “而、乃”一般只作定语。
(3 )第三人称，a “彼”出现率不高，一般作主语，个别用作宾语，仍有指示性，有轻蔑意味。b“之、其”出现率很高，“之”只作宾语，“其”只作定语。
(4 )第一、二人称代词后，加“侪、辈、属、曹”表复数。如“不者，若属皆且为所虏。”
4 、无定代词:这是古代汉语特有的一类代词。它们只能作主语。
(1 )“或”:表肯定。a 意“有的人”、“某人”、“有的(东西)”。b 前有先行词，“或”指代其中一个人或一些人。如“宋人或得玉”。c 句中连续出现几个“或”，构成排比。如“或百步而后止，或五十步而后止。”“或”指“有的人”，不能表示选择。
(2 )“莫”:表广泛的否定。a 若没有先行词，表示一种不强调范围的否定，一般都指人。如“保民而王，莫之能御”;b 若有先行词，表强调范围的否定，指人又指物。如“国人莫敢言，道路以目。”c 汉以后，“莫”发展出了否定副词的用法，表示禁止性的否定，相当于“不要”。d 也可以表示一般性否定，相当于“不”。
5 、辅助性代词:这类代词有“所、者”，它们有一定的指代作用，但不能单独充当句子成分。
(1 )“所”:基本语法功能是加在谓词性成分前，指代某种动作的对象，组成所字结构，使谓词性成分名词化。名词、形容词出现在“所”后也变成动词了。可分三类:a “所+ 动词”。如“所载”“所画”，意思为“载的东西”“画的事物”。中心语在语义上都是动词的宾语，即受事者。b “所+ 介词+谓词性成分”，如“是吾剑之所从坠。”中心语在语义上是介词的宾语。译为“坠下去的地方。”c “所+ (介词)+ 谓词性成分”表达的语义同第二种结构。其中心语实际上是介词的宾语。如“所杀大臣，多吕后力。”可以认为“所”后省略了介词“以”，是指“杀
大臣凭借的力量”。
(2 )“者”:基本语法功能是位于词或词组之后，构成者字结构，表示“„的人”“„的事物”。可分两类a :“谓词性成分+ 者”，如“赦之，以劝事君者”。代词“者”加在谓词性成分后，可使谓词性成分名词化。b “名词性成分(名词、所字结构)+ 者”起复指名词性成分的作用，使这个名词性成分得到强调。如“陈胜者，阳城人也。”者字结构表示施事者。
第十二节副词
1 副词:是一种只能充当状语的虚词，它虽然有一定的词汇意义，但不能表示具体事物、动作行为或性质状态，而只能表示动作行为、性质状态的时间、程度、范围、肯定否定或情态、证据。它一般是修饰动词性词语或形容词性词语，在判断句中修饰名词性词语。
2 、时间副词:(1 )表动作行为发生在过去的时间。a “向、乡”是同一个副词，只是写法不同，译为“从前、刚才”;b “既、业”表示动作行为已经完成，相当于“已经”:“c 尝”“曾”表示过去做过某事，译为“曾经”。先秦只用“尝”，汉代后用“曾”。
(2 )表示动作行为正在进行或正在实现的时间，有“方、正、适、会”等。a “方”一般只用在动词性词语前面，译作“正在”;b “适、会”还可作用在主语前面，译作“正遇上”。
(3 )表示动作行为将要进行的时间，有“行、将、且、垂”等。在动词前作状语。可译为“将要、快要、就要”。
(4 )表示动作行为的久暂，有“俄、暂、姑、常、雅、素”等。“俄、暂”是表示时间短暂的，相当于“一会儿”“不久”。a “姑”意为“暂且”;b “常、雅、素”表示时间长久。“常”相当于“经常、时常”，“雅、素”相当于平素、一向。
3 、范围副词:(1 )表示总括:包括无遗或很少例外的副词，有“皆、尽、毕、悉、举、咸、具、凡、都、共、率”等。a “毕、举”是表示都、全部的意思，b “凡”意有二，一是用在句子前面表示规律性的归纳，表示“凡是”、“大凡”;二是用在数词前面表示总括事物的数量或动作的数量，相当于“总共、共”;c “率”也表示总括，意思相当于大都、大致。
(2 )表示范围小或有限制或有例外的副词。有“但、特、只、直、止、第、独、徒、仅、唯”等。a 它们都有“只、仅仅”的意思。b “仅”除了表示“只”的意思，在唐代表示数量多，有“几乎、将近、差不多达到”的意思，读jin.c “唯”表“只有”。
4 、程度副词。可分三类:(1 )表示程度高的。a “最、至、极、绝”表示最高度，意思是“最”;b “大”意思是“十分”;c “太”意思是指程度上超过一定的限度;d “殊、特、尤、良”的意思是特别、非常。e “良”在汉代与“久”连用，表很久意。六朝以后修饰其他词语，是的确、很的意思。f“甚”六朝前，既作状语，也作谓语、定语，是形容词，六朝后，才专作状语成为程度很高的副词。
(2 )表示程度不深、轻微的副词，有“少、稍、微、略、颇”等。都是稍微、略微的意思。a 先秦表示这类意思的一般用“少”，汉代以后才用“略、微、颇”，b 唐宋后“稍”才由表逐渐义的情态副词分化出程度副词的用法。
(3 )表示程度在原有基础上的加深加重。有“加、更、愈、益、弥、兹(滋)”等，相当于“更、越、更加”。
. 5 、情态副词。分三小类;(1 )表示动作行为进行的方式，a “俱、并”表示几个施动者一起做某件事;b “闲、微、窃”表示秘密地、暗中地做某件事;c “帮”表示故意特意;d “固”表示坚决地做某件事。
(2 )表示动作行为发生或进行的速度。a “暂”两属:强调时间的短暂时(一会儿、短时间)，是时间副词;强调动作的突然性时，属情态副词。b “遽”表示匆忙急迫;c “卒(猝)”表示时间急促突然;d “立、即、旋”表示事或行为紧接着发生;f “稍、渐”表示动作的逐渐性;g “益”汉代后也产生了逐渐义。唐前是程度副词，“更加”义。
(3 )表示动作行为进行的频率。a “数、亟、累、屡、仍”表示动作多次出现;b “辄”表示同一动作行为的多次重复相当于往往、总是;c “每”表示反复出现的情况或动作中的任何一次;d “复”表示重复进行同一动作。
6 、语气副词。分五小类:(1 )表示确认的语气。a “乃、即”相当于“就是”;b “必、定”相当于“一定”;c “诚、信”相当于“实在、的确”d “果”相当于“果真”。
(2 )表示委婉的测度、商榷或论议语气。a “其、盖、殆”相当于“大概(是)、恐怕(是)”。b “盖”大多用在句首，既表示猜测性的论断语气，又带有提示的语气;也可用在谓语前面，表“大概”意。
(3 )表示出自意外的惊异语气，常用的有“曾”多与否定副词“不”连用，相当于“竟然”。如“老臣病足，曾不能疾走。”
(4 )表示祈使语气。“其”用在祈使句中，有希望、请求、劝勉的意思，可译为“希望、还是”等。
(5 )表示反诘的语气，常用的有“岂、其、庸、巨(讵)宁”等，意思相当于“难道、哪里、怎么”，有时不能译出。
7 否定副词。a “不”和“弗”都表示一般的否定，“不”的用法较宽，“弗”在秦汉前使用范围相当窄，通常只用在及物动词前，后面也不再出现宾语。b “毋”和“勿”通常用在祈使句中，表示禁止或劝阻，意思是“不要”。“勿”有时也用作一般性的否定。“毋”也写作“无”。
c “未”是表示情况还没有出现或动作还没有进行，相当于“没有”。
d “非”一般用于名词性谓语前，表示否定判断;有时含有假设性的否定，相当于“若不是”，如“吾非至于子之门，则殆矣。”有时也可用于叙述句和描写句，表示对行为和性质的否认。
e “微”可用在单句中表示否定，与“非”相当;又可表示假设性的否定，相当于“若不是”;还可同副词“独”结合，表示“不但(如此)”。
f “否”不作谓语的修饰成分，而与谓语并用，构成肯定否定迭用的句子，表示否定的一面。或单用，构成独词句。
8 、指代性的副词“相”和“见”。它们用在及物动词前面作状语，指代动词后面的宾语。(1 )“相”，a 表互指，意为“相互”。如“今梁赵相攻，轻兵锐卒必竭于外。”b 表偏指，即指代动作受事者的一方，不包括动作施事者。如“时时为安慰，久久莫相忘”，意是“莫忘我”。
(2 )“见”a 原是助动词，用在动词前表示主语是动作的受事者;b 魏晋南北朝时期又演变为副词，用在及物动词前，表示对他人所发动作行为的接受，有指代宾语的作用。可译作“自己”或“我”。
9 、谦敬副词。a 表敬副词:“请、敬、谨、幸、惠、辱、猥、垂、蒙”等。
b 表谦副词。有:“敢、窃、忝、猥、伏”等。应注意动词“请”和表敬副词“请”的用法。作动词时表示“请求对方做”;作副词时表示“请允许我做”。如:“请京，使居之。”“欲与大叔，臣请事之。”前句是动词，后句是表敬副词。
第十三节介词和连词
一、介词
1 、介词是由动词虚化而来的词类，它在句中的作用仍带有动词性质的痕迹。它能带宾语，但不能单独进入句子结构，更不能充当谓语。大约有“于(於、乎)、以、因、由、为、自、从、与、及”等十几个。
2 、介词的语法特点:(1 )介词带宾语，有时宾语前置。(参见第九节)(2 )古代汉语中介词的宾语大多可以省略。(“于”字的宾语不能)(3 )在语法功能上，古代汉语由“因、为、与、从”等组成的介词结构一般作状语，但“于”字介宾结构表时间处所意义的还可做补语。“以”字结构表工具方式的既可做状语，又可作补语。
3 、于(於、乎):用法有四种:(1 )引进动作行为的时间、处所或动作行为所涉及的范围，组成介宾结构，作句子的补语或状语。译为“在、从、到”或“在„„中”“在„„方面”等。(2 )引进动作行为涉及的对象，组成介宾结构，作补语或状语，可译为“向、跟、给、对、对于”等。(3 )引进比较的对象，组成介宾结构在形容词和表心理活动的动词后面作补语，译作“比”。(4 )引进动作行为的主动者，组成介宾结构作动词的补语，译作“被”。此外:(1 )介词“于”和代词“是”结合，构成介宾关系的凝固词组，在句中作状语，意思是“从此”“在这里”“在这个时候”或“在这种情况下”。后来虚化为连词，一般用在句子的开头表承接。(2 )“乎”:用作介词，其作用与“于”或“於”基本相同，可以引进动作行为的处所、时间、对象等，译为在、比、到、向等。乎的使用频率较低，“乎”字结构一般只作补语，一般也不引进主动者。
4 、“以”:原是动词，义同“用”，由此虚化为介词。主要用法大致有以下几种:(1 )引进动作行为的工具、手段，可译为“用”“拿”。
(2 )引进动作行为连带的人，这是一种行为方式。我们以“率领”来翻译它。如“宫之奇以其族行”(宫之奇率领他的族人离开了虞国。)这也许是动词的残存用法，但是已经虚化，与介词“以”难以分开。
(3 )引进动作行为的条件、依据、标准等，“以”字结构通常作状语，可译为“凭着、依靠、按照”等。
(4 )引进动作行为所处置或涉及的对象。可译为“把”，或不译。
(5 )引进情况出现和动作行为发生的原因、理由。可译为“把”。
(6 )引进动作行为发生的时间或范围，相当于“于”，可译为“在”。
此外，(1 )“有以”、“无以”是动词“有、无”和介词“以”组成的凝固结构，相当于“有东西(或办法)用来„„”、“没有东西(或办法)用来„„”的意思。这种结构只能作状语。(2 )“以故”是“由于这个原因”、“根据这种情况”、“用这个东西”的意思。(3 )“是以”是宾语前置的介宾结构，意思是“因此”，用于句子开头表示结果。
5 、“因”:本义是茵席(坐垫)，名词。引申为依靠、凭借的意思，动词。介词“因”即由动词“因”虚化而来，由它组成的介宾结构充当句子的状语。有两种用法:(1 )表示动作行为的条件、依据或中介，有“凭着„”“趁着„”、“通过„”之类的意思。
(2 )表示动作行为的原因或理由，有“因为„”“由于„”之类的意思。
6 、“为”:原是动词，读wei ，常用基本义是做。虚化为介词。读wei.它的用法有五种:(1 )引进动作的服务对象，可译为“替”、“给”等。这种用法至今仍保留。(2 )引进动作行为的目的，可译为“为了”。(3 )引进动作行为的原因，可译为“因为”。(4 )引进动作行为的涉及的对象，可译为“跟”“对”“向”。(5 )引进动作行为的鞫 撸 诒欢 渲凶髯从铮 蚬钩伞拔? 名词(或代词)+ 所+ 动词”的句式，读wei.
7 、“与”:原来也是动词，基本意义是帮助、给予、参与。由此虚化为介词。主要用法有三种:(1 )引进动作的服务对象，可译为“为”“替”“给”。(2 )引进动作行为的参与者，可译为“跟”“同”。(3 )引进比较的对象，可译为“跟”、“跟„„相比”。
二、连词:是连接词、词组或句子以帮助表示两项或几项之间的语法关系或逻辑关系的虚词。古代汉语常用的连词有“与及以并且而则况矧但第抑虽然至即使如若苟倘令藉设故”等。
1 、“与”:(1 )一般是连接体词(名词、代词)或体词性词组，组成联合结构，
表示并列关系，可译作“和”。(2 )有时也连接谓词性成分，表示选择关系，可译为“或者”“还是”。如“杀人以梃与刀，有以异乎,”(3 )可以连接分句和分句，构成并列复句，表示选择。通常与其他虚词配合，构成“与„„不如”“与„„不若”“与„„宁”“与其„„不如”“与其„„孰若”等格式，可译为“与其„„宁可(不如)”。
2 、“与”既可作介词，又可作连词需要加以区别:(1 )介词“与”带宾语，组成介宾结构，通常在动词前作状语;连词“与”用在联合关系的成分中构成名词或动词性词组，“与”字本身不充当语法成分。(2 )介词前面可以用副词修饰，连词不能。
3 、“且”:既是副词，又是连词。用作副词有“将要、将近、暂且、姑且”等意思，在动词或数词前作状语;连词“且”只起连接作用，不能独立充当句法成分。
4 、“且”的具体用法:(1 )在并列关系的谓语成分中，连接形容词和形容词，表示同时具有两种属性或存在两种状态，译作“又„„又„„”;连接动词和动词，译作“一边„„一边„„”。(2 )用在一句开头，连接分句与分句或段落与段落，表示意思上更进一层，译为“并且”“而且”“况且”等。(3 )用在偏句主语后，以作陪衬，说明另一事情程度更严重，以引起后面正句的进层推论，这种推论又多用反问来表达。“且”可译作“尚且”。(4 )用在后一分句的开头以与前一分句相连接，表示在两项或多项之间作一选择，译作“还是”。
5 、“以”:既是介词又是连词，连词“以”是从介词“以”虚化而来。常见用法有五:
(1 )连接动词和动词、形容词和形容词，表示前后两项的并列关系，译作“又”。
(2 )连接动词和动词，表示两项动作行为的连续性和时间上的紧相承接，可译为“来”，也可不译。
(3 )连接前后两个动词性成分，表示后一项动作行为是前一项动作行为的目的和结果，可译为“来”“以便”“以致”等。
(4 )连接前后两个动词性的成分，表示前项动作行为是后项动作行为进行的条件、方式，但在句法结构上仍是平等的联合关系，而不是偏正关系。可译为“来”，或不译。
(5 )连接状语和动词中心语，表示前项是动作进行的时间、条件、状态。这种“以”字用法与“而”相近。根据上下文的表达方式可译可不译。
6 、“而”:(1 )连接谓词性词语或分句，两项之间的意义是并列关系，“而”可译为“又”，也可不译。有时连接名词性词语，那是因为谓语具有说明事理或描写情况的性质。
(2 )连接谓词性词语或分句，前后两项所表示的动作行为或状况在时间上是先后紧相承接或事理上有进层、原因、条件和方式等关系，“而”字有时可随文译为“又”“而且”“因而”“就”。
(3 )连接谓词性词语或分句，前后两项在事理上是不一致的，构成了转接的关系。可译为“却”“可是”。
(4 )连接主语和谓语，有时表示谓语的情况是设想的，有时表示主语不应出现谓语的情况。从意义关系来看，属于逆接，可译为“如果”或“却”。(5 )连接状语和中心语，表示偏正关系，在语义上属顺接，“而”字一般不译出。
7 、“则”:(1 )用在结果分句的开头，承接前一分句，表示二分句在事理上是条件和结果的关系。可译为“那么就”。
(2 )连接动词性词语或动词作谓语的分句。两种动作行为或两件事虽无必然的条
件关系，但两者的出现在时间上是紧密相承的。“则”可译为“就”。
(3 )用在两个以上的并列分句中，表示列举或对比相关的情况下，结果是不同的。
(4 )连接动词性词语或分句，前后两项的相关出现，含有转折意味。这里又可分为三小类:a 表前后两项相反，可译为“却”“反而”等。b 表后项行为是前项动作施事者未曾料到的，译作“却”或“原来已经”。c 表让步关系，可译作“固然”“虽然”“倒是”等。如“善则善矣，未可以战也。”(好倒是好„„)
(5 )表假设关系。
8 、“则”和“而”的区别:(1 )“则”今义是“就”，“而”今无相当词。(2 )“则”重在表示连接项的先后相承，连接项之间有顿挫的意味:“而”却重在过递，连接项之间是连贯的。(3 )“而”a 连接项之间的关系可以是平等的，也可以是相反的;b “则”连接项之间的关系却只能是前后相承的，不能相反。
9 、“虽”是表示让步关系的连词分为(1 )事实让步，译为“虽然”。(2 )假设
让步。译为“即使”“纵然”。
10、“虽然”:在古代，这是两个词，“虽”，连词:“然”，代词。合在一起通常自成一个分句，表示承接上文，以引起下文的转折，意思是“虽然如此”或“即使如此”。六朝以后，逐渐虚化为连词了。
11、“然”:原是指示代词，意思是“这样”，虚化为连词，表示转折，意思相当于“但是、可是”。
12、“然而”是指示代词“然”和转折连词“而”的连用。“然”字总结上文，“而”字引起下文的转折，意思是“这样却”“虽然如此，可是”。
13、“然则”是指示代词“然”与连词“则”的连用。“然”总结上文，“则”引起下文的推论，意思是“既然如此，那就”。
14、“之”原是动词，意思是“到„„去”;又借作指示代词，常用来表示复指;逐步虚化为连词，(1 )连接定语和中心语组成偏正结构，相当于“的”。这是它的主要用法。(2 )连接主语和谓语，使主谓结构变为定中关系的名词性词组，在句中充当主语、宾语、判断句的谓语和时间状语。(即取消句子独立性的用法)(3 )用在主谓间，使它变成一个分句用在另一个分句的前面。第(2 )(3 )类的“之”一般不译。
第十四节语气词
一、语气词的分类:1 )按照语气词在句中的位置和作用，可分为:(1 )句首语气词有:“夫盖维惟唯”。(2 )句中语气词有:“盖也与”(3 )句尾语气词有:“也矣乎哉已耳焉与邪夫兮”等。2 )按照语气作用，可分为(1 )陈述语气词:“也矣已耳焉”(2 )疑问语气词有“乎与邪”(3 )感叹语气词有“哉夫兮”。
二、句尾语气词:1 、“也”:表静态，通常用在判断句尾表确认肯定的判断语气。用在陈述、祈使、疑问句尾时，都表论断、确认语气。并不是在判断语气之外，又表示陈述、祈使、疑问语气。用在复句中后一分句的末尾，是表示对这一分句的确认语气。
2 、“矣”:主要用于叙述句尾，同时也常用于其他类型的句子(复句的后分句、描写句、疑问句)，表示把已经或者将会出现的新情况告诉人们的陈述语气，是动态的。相当于“了”。
3 、“已”同“矣”的作用相近，原是动词，表示停止、限止语气，表示事
实止于这种情况，有往小里说的意思。一般可译为“了”或“啦”。
4 、“耳”:是“而已”的合音。一般用在叙述句尾，动词性减弱，可译为“罢了”。
5 、“焉”是一个有指代作用的语气词，用于叙述句和描写句尾，表提示性的陈述语气。(1 )一般用在不及物动词或动宾词组后面，既表示“于(介词)+ 是(此)”的意思，又表示提示性的煞尾语气。如“积土成山，风雨兴焉;积水成渊，蛟龙生焉。”(2 )用在形容词谓语后面，隐含“于是”而指代比较对象。如“晋国，天下莫强焉。”(3 )用在及物动词后，相当于代词宾语“之”，指代作用更明显一些。如“非曰能之，愿学焉。”(4 )如果“焉”所指代的对象、时间、处所，在本句中的前一部分已经出现了，那么“焉”就不兼指代作用，而虚化为纯粹的句尾语气词了。如“南方有鸟焉，名曰蒙鸠。”
6 、“乎”:是使用频率最高的疑问语气词。(1 )用在是非问句尾，(是非问是把事情的正面说出来，然后希望对方作出肯定或否定的回答)。译为“吗”。(2 )用在选择问句尾，(选择问是列举两种或两种以上的情况，用疑问形式提出来，要求对方从中选择一种作出回答。)译为“呢”。(3 )用在特指问句尾，(特指问是用疑问代词提出所问内容，要求对方就疑问代词所指来回答。)可译为“呢”。(4 )用在反问句尾，(反问句是无疑而问，是用疑问的形式来表示明确的肯定或否定意思，一般不需要回答。)可译为“吗”或“呢”。(5 )“得无„„乎”“无乃„„乎”可译为“该不会„„吧”“只怕„„吧”。“乎”仍是疑问语气。(6 )用于祈使句尾。仍是疑问语气词，只是句中的祈请或感叹语调是主要的，“乎”的疑问语气相应减弱了，带有疑虑未定的色彩。
7 、“与(歟)、邪(耶)”:(1 )疑问语气没有“乎”那样强烈纯粹，它们也可用在各种类型的疑问句尾，可译为“呢”“吗”“吧”。(2 )同“其”“得无”“无乃”等词语配合，表示委婉的疑问语气。
8 、“哉”:(1 )用在感叹句尾是表示强烈的感叹语气的，可译为“啊”。(2 )用于反问句尾更为常见，依然是表示感叹语气。译为“啊”。
9 、“夫”:用在感叹句尾表示的感叹语气偏于惋惜悲伤的情绪，仍译为“啊”。
10、“兮”:一般用于韵文的感叹句尾，可译为“啊”“呀”。
11、句尾语气词的连用:语气的重心一般都落在最后一个语气词上面。
三、句首语气词
1 、“夫”是从指示代词虚化而来的，(1 )用在句首表示提出话题、引进议论或引出常理以转入正论的语气，不译。又称发语词。(2 )与“且、故、若)今”等组成固定词组，用在句首表示进层)假设)结果等问题的议论语气。
2 、“盖”:(1 )作句首语气词时用于发议论。不译。(2 )用在句中主语后谓语前，表示猜测或解释性的语气，意思为“大概”“可能是”，我们处理为语气副词。
3 、“唯(惟、维)”(1 )用在句首，有两种作用:一种是表示提示性的语气。这种用法多见于《诗经》《尚书》。加一种作用是表示期望的语气，一般写作“唯”。(2 )用在句中，表示限制范围)帮助判断)解释原由，有修饰谓语作用，译为“只(是))就是”等，我们处理作语气副词。
四、句中语气词
1 、“也”用在句中表示提顿语气，有提砂下文舒缓节奏的作用。有时用在并列的词组后面，表示顿宕语气。
2 、“与”用在句中，表示顿宕舒缓语气。
古代汉语复习资料(四)
应注明一点:诗律部分，我选了一些例子，但是没有全把平仄注上。你可以自己找书补上。
第十五节几种修辞表达方式
1 用典:引用古人的历史事迹或古代典籍中的言语词句，来证明自己的论点或表达自己的思想感情，这就叫用典。如“睢园绿竹，气凌彭泽之樽;邺水朱华，光照临川之笔。”这种用法的好处是含蓄，增强表现力。缺点是时间过久，后人难于理解;有时随意割裂拼凑，以至形成一种生造的畸形词语。
2 、委婉:不把表述的内容直截了当地说出来，而是有意地把话说得婉转曲折，含蓄有致，这就是委婉。古书中常见的委婉手法有:(1 )使用谦敬语。如对己表谦的有“仆、愚)妾)奴)小人)下走)下臣)不谷)寡人”等谦称来代替第一人称。对人(特别是皇上)用“左右)足下)先生)执事)陛下”来代替第二人称。(2 )避讳语。就是对要说的事加以回避掩盖或装饰美化。如“公叔病有如不可讳，将奈社稷何,”(3 )迂回语。本来想说甲事，却偏要说乙事，转弯抹角，话中有话。这就是迂回语。在外交辞令上多使用。
3 、分承:在遣词造句中，把本来应写成两个短语或句子的话，合为形式上的一个短语或句子，把相同的语句成分放在一起并提，但在表意上却仍然必须按照两个短语或句子的组合关系来分别相承，这种修辞方式就是分承，或者叫做并提。如“普施行之，年九十余，耳目聪明，齿牙完整。”，句中“耳目聪明”形式上是一个主谓结构，其实是“耳聪”“目明”两个主谓结构分承而来。这种方式可以使行文紧凑，但在内容表达上却容易使人产生误解。
4 、共用:在行文中，两个相连接的词或词组共用某一个或必个词语，换言之，同一个或几个词语在组合搭配的关系上是兼管着两个相连的词或词组。这种修辞方式就是共用。如:“今君有区区之辞，不拊爱子其民，因而贾利之。”中“拊爱”和“子”这两个动词共用“民”这个宾语。
5 、复合偏义:把两个意义相对相反的词组合在一起，但在表义上只睛一个词起作用，另一个词并不表义，仅仅是一种陪衬，这种修辞表达方式就是复合偏义。如“宫中府中，俱为一体，陟罚臧否，不宜异同。”“异同”只有“异”义，“同”不表义。
6 、互文见义:为了避免行文的单调平板，或适应文体表达的某些要求，把一个意思比较复杂的语句有意识地分成两个或三个形式相同(或大致相同))用词交错有致的语句，使用权这两个(或三个)语句的意义内容具有彼此隐含，彼此渗透，相互呼应，相互补充的关系，这种修辞方法叫做互文见义，(简称互文、互言)互备)互体)参互)如“秦时明月汉时关”意思是秦、汉时的明月和关塞。如“烟笼寒水月笼沙”意思是:烟雾和月色笼罩着寒凉的江水和沙滩。
第十六节古书的注解
1 古书的基本体例:有传)注)笺)诂)解)章句)音义)正义)补注、集注)集解)集释等。大致类型有:(1 )传注体:用以解释古书正文，(2 )义疏体:既解释古书正文，又解释前人注文。(3 )集解(集注)集释)体:在同一本古书下洪各家注释。
2 、《十三经注疏》本中，《诗经》注疏包括的四家的注解，即西汉毛亨的《毛诗故训传》，东汉郑玄的《毛诗笺》，唐陆德明的《毛诗音义》(又叫《释文》)，唐孔颖达的《毛诗正义》(又叫《疏》)。
3 、古书注解的内容大致包括以下几方面:(1 )解释词义(2 )串讲文意(3 )分
析句读(4 )提示语法(5 )说明修辞表达方式(6 )诠释典故成语(7 )校勘文字。
4 、古注中的“章句”体，着重于串讲和提示文意。不仅串讲文句大意，还往往把文章的段落大意归纳出来。“集注体”的古注有时也这样做。
5 、古注的常用术语:
(1 )“曰)为)谓之”:用来辨析意义相同相类的词语间的细微差别。用法是“解释语+ ‘曰)为)谓之’?被解释语”。如“豕一岁曰豵”，“豵”是被解释语。
(2 )“谓”:以狭义释广义，以具体释抽象，以分名释总名。偶尔有用“谓”辨析相关相类的词语的意义差别。如“有谓富也，亡谓贫也”。
(3 )“犹”:被释语在前，解释语在后。使用这个术语大致有四种性质:用同义(包括近义)词来解释。如“同犹俱也。”用远引申义来解释。如“老犹敬也，幼犹爱也”。以今语释古语。“谁为，犹为谁也。”以常用字释非常用字。如“直犹但也。”
(4 )“貌，之貌”:都用来解释表示某种性质)状态的形容词，相当于“„„的样子”。如“莞尔，小笑貌”。
(5 )“辞(词)也)语词也)语助也)发声”:古注中使用这些术语，大都是用来说明某字是虚词(主要是指语气词)。如《诗经》:“汉之广矣，不可泳思。”毛传:“思，辞也。”意思指“思”是虚词。
(6 )“之言)之为言”:一般都是声训，即用被解释的词的声音相同或相近的词来进行解释，目的在于探求事物的命名之义或同源词，并不是解释这个词在句中的具体表达义。如《礼记》:“古者公田藉而不税。”郑玄注:“藉之言借也。”古注中也有用“之言”来解释用字通假现象的。如《诗经》:“既敬既戒，惠此南国。”郑笺:“敬之言警也。”
(7 )“言”:是用来点明词语或文句的言外之意，即含意，包括用来串讲正文。如《诗经》:“黽勉同心，不宜有怒。”毛传:“言黽勉者，思与君子同心也。”
(8 )“读为)读曰”:这两个术语主要是用来说明通假，即用本字来说明正文中的假借字及古今通用字。如:“信，读为伸”，“巨，读曰讵。”，“倍读曰背”。
(9 )“读若)读如”:主要用于注音，起标明音读的作用。如“信，读如屈伸之‘伸’，假借字也。”
(10)“如字”:用于注音，表示被注的字按它通常的读音来读。如:《礼记》:“所谓诚其意者，毋自欺也，如恶恶臭，如好好色。”陆德明《音义》:“恶恶，上乌路反，下如字。„„好好，上呼报反，下如字。”意思是“前面的‘恶’字反切音是乌路，(即取‘乌’的声母路的韵母，读。)。后面的‘恶’，读它通常的音。„„前面的‘好’，读‘呼报’反切出来的音，后面的‘好’读它通常的音。”
(11)“当为)当作”:用来改正古书中的误字。如《周礼》:“诵四方之传道”。郑玄注:“故书‘传’作‘傅’，杜子春云:”傅当作传‘“。
(12)“衍)脱”:“衍”是用来说明古书中多出了文字的现象，“脱”是用来说明古书中脱落了文字的现象。
6 、怎样利用古注:(1 )批判吸收，(2 )正确取舍，(3 )联系正文，(4 )融会贯通。
第十七节古书的标点
1 古人读书时要自己断句，用“。”和“、”作为句子结束和句间停顿的标记，叫做“句读()”。刻书附有句读，是从宋代开始的。
2 、古书标点的注意事项:(1 )注意正确地点断句子。所断开的每个句子必须各自成立。句句可以讲通。必须符合事物的情理和作者的原意。(2 )注意引语的有无和起迄，注意使用引号。(3 )注意句子的结构层次。
3 、古书标点致误原因:(1 )词汇方面，(2 )语法方面(3 )音韵方面(4 )古代文化常识方面。
第十八节古文今译
1 近代学者严复概括归纳了三项翻译原则:“信)达)雅”。“信”指译文要忠实于原文的意思，要准确:“达”指译文的表达要通顺)晓畅。“雅”指译文的语言要典雅，能反映原文的语言风格。
2 、今译的具体要求和方法:(1 )每个句子中的各个词都必须力求在译文中得到落实，能对译的应做到一一对译。(2 )在句法结构和词序方面，应尽可能对照原文进行直译。凡古今不同的语法形式如古代汉语的词类活用)特殊词序)特殊的词组结构及习惯格式，则应按照现代汉语的表达方式予以转换。(3 )对古文中所用修辞手段和古代文化专有名词，今译时应根据具体情况处理。(4 )译文忠
实反映原作品的语气和感情色彩。
第十九节古今语音的异同
1 语言是不断变化的，语言的三要素(语音)语法)词汇)都在变化。与词汇相比，语音的变化相对要慢一些。但古今对比还是有较大的差别。古今语音每个音节都可分成声韵调三部分。
2 、古韵和今韵的不同:(1 )从诗歌的韵脚看古今韵的不同。(2 )从联绵词的读音来看，古今韵不同。古代的叠韵联绵词用今音念，仍然是叠韵的情况居多。但是也有一些叠韵联绵词，用今音念，已经不成叠韵了，这正是反映了语音起了变化，古韵和今韵是不同的。
3 、联绵词:是两个音节合成的单纯词，又称联绵字。特点是两个音节，一个词素连缀成义而不能拆开。拆开后各个部分没有意义。如:匍匐)滂沱)囫囵)蟋蟀。联绵词的两个音节又大都具有双声和叠韵的关系。双声:即声母相同。叠韵即韵母相同。
4 、古今声母的不同:也可由联绵词反映出来。古双声的联绵词在今音读来还是双声的占多数，但是也有小部分却因字音的变化而不再构成双声关系了。
5 、古今声调的变化:中古的声调是平上去入四类。从元代以后，北方话中不仅入声韵消失了，而且入声调也转入了其他的声调。
6 明末杰出的古音学家陈第说过一句至理名言:“时有古今，地有南北，字有更革，音有转移，亦势所必至。”
第二十节古音通假
1 古音通假:人们在使用汉字时，由于各种情况，应该使用甲字，却使用了同音或近音的乙字，发生了张冠李戴的现象，这就是用了通假字。从语音的角度来看，就叫做古音通假。严格说来，通假实质上是汉字使用了别字的问题。后来得到了公认，被称做通假。
2 、按借字和本字语音关系的不同情况，分类列举如下:(1 )同音通假:即借字和本字的声韵都相同而构成的通假。如:蚤~ 早，畔~ 叛，无~ 毋等(2 )音近通假:双声通假:借字和本字声母相同(还须韵母相近)。如:惠~ 慧。叠韵通假:借字和本字的韵部相同(还须声母的发音部位相同)，如:信~伸，详~ 佯。声韵相邻通假:借字和本字的声母和韵母都不相同，但都相近。如归~ 馈，阙~ 掘。
第二十一节诗律
1 、律诗最终完成于初唐的沈佺期、宋之问之手。
2 、古体诗:只要求押韵和句式大致整齐(五言或七言)就叫古体诗。
3 、今体诗:严格按律诗的格律要求写作，就叫今体诗(或近体诗)。
4 、近体诗的形式特点:在句数)押韵)平仄和对仗四个方面都有许多讲究。(1 )句数:是固定的，规定律诗是八句，绝句是四句。还一种长律，又称“排律”，以五言为常，一般限制在十二句，也有超出此数的。这种排律是律诗的重复扩展，只能看作是律诗的变体。
(2 )押韵:近体诗对押韵的要求非常严格。A 位置:a 每联对句的尾字;b 第一句可入韵可不入韵。偶句一定要用韵。B 特点:a 用“平水韵”的106 部为用韵标准;b 一般押平声韵;c 韵脚只能取同一韵部的字，即不能出韵;d 不能转韵。
(3 )讲究平仄:是近体诗的最主要的特点。平仄是对四声的分类，“平”指平声(阴平、阳平):“仄”即不平，指的是上、去、入三声。对现代汉语来说，“平”也是指阴平)阳平:“仄”指上声)去声。古代的入声字已经分到现代汉语的“四声”里去了。
(4 )讲究对仗:诗词创作中的对偶叫对仗。a 律诗的首尾联可对可不对，颔、颈二联必须对仗。b词义的对待是对仗的形式要求。c 绝句不要求对仗，使用对仗时，大多数在前面一联。d 对仗原则:平仄相对;词性相同;词义(内容)相对。
5 、绝句:“绝”是断绝的意思，绝句即截取律诗任何相邻的两联而成。
6、近体诗的四种平仄格式:
五言诗:
A 仄仄- 平平- 仄 B平平- 仄仄- 平
C 平平- 平- 仄仄 D仄仄- 仄- 平平;
七言诗的句式:
A 平平- 仄仄- 平平- 仄 B仄仄- 平平- 仄仄- 平
C 仄仄- 平平平- 仄仄 D平平- 仄仄仄- 平平
7 、律诗分四联:首联、颔联、颈联、尾联。
8 、词每联的上句叫出句，下句叫对句。同一联出句和对句的平仄相反，称
做“对”;上一联对句和下一联出句头二字的平仄相同，称作“粘”。不符合“对”的规则的叫“失对”;不符合“粘”的规则的，叫“失粘”。
9 、用“粘”“对”和用韵规则，可以从近体诗的四种平仄格式，得出以四种不同平仄格式的律诗的四种基本格式。
甲、五律仄起仄收式(七律平起仄收式)
(||)——||—。C (||)———||—，D (——)||| ——|.
A (——)||——| ，B (||)——||—。C (||)———||，D (——)||| ——。
乙、五律仄起平收式(七律平起平收式)
D (——)||| ——，B (||)——||—。C (||)———||，D (——)||| ——。
A (——)||——| ，B (||)——||—。C (||)———||，D (——)||| ——。
丙、五律平起仄收式(七律仄起仄收式)
C (||)———||，D (——)||| ——。A (——)||——| ，B|| )——||—。
C (||)———||，D (——)||| ——。A (——)||——| ，B|| )——||—。
丁、五律平起平收式(七律仄起平收式)
B (||)——||—，D (——)||| ——。A (——)||——| ，B|| )——||—。
C (||)———||，D (——)||| ——。A (——)||——| ，B|| )——||—。
(注)“—”平:“| ”仄。
简化格式:甲:ABCDABCD乙DBCDABCD丙CDABCDAB丁BDABCDAB，
只要把四种平仄格式记住，律诗的四种基本格律就能推出。
10、“犯孤平”:五言第一字，七言第三字，如果用了仄声字，除了韵脚之外，就再没有平声，称作犯孤平。
11、拗救:出现不合平仄、不合声律的拗句，采取补救办法，术语上就叫拗救。拗救的几种方法:
(1 )孤平自救:在B 句中，为避免犯孤平，将第三字(指五言的，七言的就加二字，是第五字。以下同)改为平声字，即| —||—改为| ——| —。我们称它为“B1拗3 自救”。
(2 )特种拗救:句3 拗4 自救。即成了“——| —| ”。
(3 )对句拗救:有两种情况。aA句4 拗，B 句3 救，即“||—||，——| ——。”b.A4拗，B1拗B3救。即“||—||，| ——| —。”(拗:是字下加?，救:是字下
加*)
12、如何分析近体诗的平仄:(1 )找出入声字(一般考试卷上都给注明)。(2 )逐字画平仄。(3 )根据首句第二字和尾字的平仄，确定属哪种格式。如“五律平起平收式”。(4 )写出平仄谱。(5 )将诗的平仄与标准谱对照，把不合谱的字上画圈。(6 )看是否有拗救现象。
13、近体诗对仗的种类:(1 )工对:同一词类中分门别类很细微，如人名对人名，色对色，数词对数词等。(2 )宽对:只要求词类相同。(3 )借对:借音借义。
第二十二节词律
1 词:是“曲子词”的简称，它的别名之一叫“长短句”。
2 词调:是写词时所依据的乐谱。
3 、词牌:词调的名称叫词牌。(1 )由于后来词调失传，加上词与音乐的逐渐分离，词牌的作用仅止于规定字数)句式)平仄和用韵了。(2 )词牌有些原先就是词的题目。(3 )同调异名:是同一词牌具有两个以上的别名;(4 )同调异体:是指同一词调有几种别体。
4 、词谱:是词调所包含内容的具体描写。
5 、词的用韵:词人所遵循的还是“平水韵”。词的用韵都是词调所规定的，其方式大致有以下几种:(1 )一韵到底。(2 )同部换韵(3 )平仄换韵。有二种情况:一是换韵只是规定声调，对韵部没有什么要求。二是换韵后又回到原韵。
6 、词的平仄和句式:词对平仄的要求比近体诗更为严格。词是“字有定声”，有的地方规定必平必仄，不能通融。
[ 附] 一、给下面各首近体诗标上平仄(可平可仄处加上记号)
1 李白《渡荆门送别》(仄起仄收式)
渡远荆门外，来从楚国游。||- ——| ，——||—。
山随平野尽，江入大荒流。———||，—||——。
月下飞天镜，云生结海楼。||——| ，——||—。
仍怜故乡水，万里送行舟。——| —| ，||| ——。
2 王维《山居秋暝》(平起仄收式)
空山新雨后，天气晚来秋。———||，—||——。
明月松间照，清泉石上流。—| ——| ，——||—。
竹喧归浣女，莲动下渔舟。| ——||，—||——。
随意春芳歇，王孙自可留。—| ——| ，——||—。
3 李商隐《晚晴》(平起平收式)
深居俯夹城，春去夏犹清。——||—，—||——。
天意怜幽草，人间重晚晴。—| ——| ，——||—。
并添高阁迥，微注小窗明。| ——||，—||——。
越鸟巢干后，归飞体更轻。||——| ，——||—。
4 杜甫《旅夜书怀》(仄起仄收式)
细草微风岸，危樯独夜舟。||——| ，——||—。
星垂平野阔，日涌大江流。———||，||| ——。
名岂文章著，宜应老病休。—| ——| ，——||—。
飘飘何所似，大地一沙鸥。———||，||| ——。
5 刘禹锡《酬乐天扬州初逢席上见赠》(七言平起仄收式)
巴山蜀水凄凉地，二十三年弃置身。怀旧空吟闻笛赋，到乡翻似烂柯人。沉舟侧畔千帆过，病树前头万木春。今日听君歌一曲，暂凭杯酒长精神。
6 杜甫《登高》(七言仄起仄收式)
风急天高猿啸哀，渚清沙白鸟飞回。无边落木萧萧下，不尽长江滚滚来。万里悲秋常作客，百年多病独登台。艰难苦恨繁霜鬓，潦倒新停浊酒杯。
7 韩愈《左迁至蓝关示侄孙湘》(七言平起平收式)
一封朝奏九重天，夕贬潮阳路八千。本为圣明除弊事，肯将衰朽惜残年,云横秦岭家何在,雪拥蓝关马不前。知汝远来应有意，好收吾君瘴江边。
8 杜甫《客至》(七言平起仄收式)
舍南舍北皆春水，但见群鸥日日来。花径不曾缘客扫，蓬门今始为君开。盘飧市远无兼味，樽酒家贫只旧醅。肯与邻翁相对饮，隔篱呼取尽余杯。
二、标上平仄并指出其中的拗救:
1 王勃《送杜少府之任蜀川》(五言仄起平收式)
城阙辅三秦，风烟望五津。与君离别意，同是宦游人。海内存知己，天涯若比邻。无为在歧路，儿女共沾巾。
2 杜甫《天末怀李白》(五言平起仄收式)
闵风起天末，君子意如何,鸿雁几时到,江湖秋水多。文章憎命达，魑魅喜人过。应共冤魂语，投诗赠泪罗。
3 苏轼《新城道中》(七言平起平收式)
东风知我欲山行，吹断檐间积雨声。岭上晴云披絮帽，树头初日挂铜钲。野桃含笑竹篱短，溪柳自摇沙水清。西崦人家就最乐，煮葵哓笋饷春耕。
4 杜甫《咏怀古迹》之三(七言平起平收式)
群山万壑赴荆门，生长明妃尚有村。一去紫台连朔漠，独留青冢向黄昏。画图省识春风面，环珮空归月夜魂。千载琵琶作胡语，分明怨恨曲中论。
三、标出平仄，并分析粘对情况
1 五维《使至塞上》(五言平起平收式)
单车欲问边，属国过居延。
征篷出汉塞，归雁入胡天。
大漠孤烟直，长河落日圆。
萧关逢候骑，都护在燕然。
(失粘)
2 杜甫《咏怀古迹》之二(七言仄起平收式)
摇落深知宋玉悲，风流儒雅变吾师。怅望千秋一洒泪，萧条异代不同时。江山故宅空文藻，云雨荒台岂梦思,最是楚宫俱泯灭，舟人指点到今疑。(失粘)
(英文版 )
Two regulations promulgated for implementation is in the party in power for a long time and the rule of law conditions, the implementation of comprehensive strictly strategic plan, implementation in accordance with the rules and discipline to manage the party, strengthen inner-party supervision of major initiatives. The two regulations supporting each other, the < code > adhere to a positive advocate, focusing on morality is of Party members and Party leading cadres can see, enough to get a high standard; < rule > around the party discipline, disciplinary ruler requirements, listed as "negative list, focusing on vertical gauge, draw the party organizations and Party members do not touch the" bottom line ". Here, the main from four square face two party rules of interpretation: the first part introduces two party Revised regulations the necessity and the revision process; the second part is the interpretation of the two fundamental principles of the revision of laws and regulations in the party; the third part introduces two party regulations modified the main changes and needs to grasp several key problems; the fourth part on how to grasp the implementation of the two regulations of the party. < code > and < Regulations > revised the necessity and revised history of the CPC Central Committee the amendment to the Chinese Communist Party members and leading cadres honest politics several guidelines > and < Chinese Communist Party discipline and Punishment Regulations > column 1 by 2015 to strengthen
party laws and regulations focus. Two party regulations revision work lasted a Years, pooling the wisdom of the whole party, ideological consensus, draw historical experience, respect for the wisdom of our predecessors, which reflects the unity of inheritance and innovation; follow the correct direction, grasp the limited goals, adhere to the party's leadership, to solve the masses of the people reflect a focus on the problem. The new revision of the < code > and < rule >, reflects the party's 18 and the eighth session of the third, the spirit of the fourth plenary session, reflecting the experience of studying and implementing the General Secretary Xi Jinping series of important speech, reflects the party's eighteen years comprehensive strictly practice. (a) revised two regulations of the party need of < the ICAC guidelines > in < in 1997 Leaders as members of the Communist Party of China clean politics certain criteria (Trial) > based on revised, the promulgation and implementation of January 2010, to strengthen the construction of the contingent of leading cadres play an important role. But with the party to manage the party strictly administering the deepening, has not been able to fully meet the actual needs. Content is too complicated, "eight prohibition, 52 are not allowed to" hard to remember, and also difficult to put into practice; the second is concisely positive advocated by the lack of prohibited provisions excessive, no autonomy requirements; the third is banned terms and discipline law, both with the party discipline, disciplinary regulations
repeat and Criminal law and other laws and regulations repeat; the fourth is to "clean" the theme is not prominent, not for the existing problems, and is narrow, only needle of county-level leading cadres above. < rule > is in 1997 < Chinese Communist Party disciplinary cases (Trial) > based on revision, in December 2003 the promulgation and implementation, to strengthen the construction of the party play very important role. Along with the development of the situation, which many provisions have been unable to fully meet the comprehensive strictly administering the practice needs. One is Ji law, more than half of the provisions and criminal law and other countries laws and regulations Repetition; two is the political discipline regulations is not prominent, not specific, for violation of the party constitution, damage the authority of Party Constitution of misconduct lack necessary and serious responsibility to pursue; third is the main discipline for the leading cadres, does not cover all Party members. Based on the above situation, need to < the criterion of a clean and honest administration > and < rule > the two is likely to be more relevant regulations first amendment. By revising, really put the authority of Party discipline, the seriousness in the party tree and call up the majority of Party members and cadres of the party constitution of party compasses party consciousness. (II) two party regulations revision process the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China attaches great importance to two regulations revision . Xi Jinping, general books recorded in the Fifth
Plenary Session of the eighth session of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, on the revised regulations < > made clear instructions. According to the central deployment, the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection from 2014 under six months begin study two regulations revision. The Standing Committee of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection 4 review revised. Comrade Wang Qishan 14 times held a special meeting to study two regulations revision, amendment clarifies the direction, major issues of principle, path and target, respectively held a forum will listen to part of the province (area) secretary of the Party committee, Secretary of the Discipline Inspection Commission, part of the central ministries and state organs Department
The first party committee is mainly responsible for people, views of experts and scholars and grassroots party organizations and Party members. Approved by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, on 7 September 2015, the general office of the Central Committee of the Party issued a notice to solicit the provinces (autonomous regions, municipalities) Party, the central ministries and commissions, state ministries and commissions of the Party (party), the General Political Department of the military, every 3 people organization of Party of two regulations revision opinion. Central Commission for Discipline Inspection of extensive solicitation of opinions, careful study, attracting, formed a revised sent reviewers. In October 8 and October 12, Central Committee Political
Bureau Standing Committee and the Political Bureau of the Central Committee After consideration of the two regulations revised draft. On October 18, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China formally issued two regulations. Can say, two laws amendment concentrated the wisdom of the whole party, embodies the party. Second, < code > and < Regulations > revision of the basic principles of two party regulations revision work and implement the party's eighteen, ten eight plenary, the spirit of the Fourth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee and General Secretary Xi Jinping important instructions on the revised < low political criterion > and < Regulations >, highlighting the ruling party characteristics, serious discipline, the discipline quite in front of the law, based on the current, a long-term, advance as a whole, with Bu Xiuding independent < rule > and < rule >. Main principle is: first, adhere to the party constitution to follow. The constitution about discipline and self-discipline required specific, awaken the party constitution of party compasses party consciousness, maintaining the authority of the constitution. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out that "no rules, no side round. Party constitution is the fundamental law, the party must follow the general rules. In early 2015 held the eighth session of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection Fifth Plenary Session of the 16th Central Committee, Xi Jinping again pointed out that constitution is the party must follow the general rules, but also the general rules." the revision
of the < code > and < rule > is Method in adhere to the regulations established for the purpose of combining rule of virtue is to adhere to the party constitution as a fundamental to follow, the constitution authority set up, wake up the party constitution and party rules the sense of discipline, the party constitution about discipline and self-discipline specific requirements. 4 second is to adhere to in accordance with the regulations governing the party and the party. The Party of rule of virtue "de", mainly refers to the party's ideals and beliefs, excellent traditional style. The revised the < code > closely linked to the "self-discipline", insisting on the positive initiative, for all members, highlight the "vital few", emphasized self-discipline, focusing on the morality, and the majority of Party members and the ideological and moral standards. The revised < > Ji method separately, Ji, Ji Yan to Method, as a "negative list", emphasizing the heteronomy, focusing on vertical gauge. Is this one high and one low, a positive reaction, the strict party discipline and practice results transformation for the integration of the whole party to observe moral and discipline requirements, for the majority of Party members and cadres provides benchmarking and ruler. Third, insist on to. In view of the problems existing in the party at the present stage, the main problems of Party members and cadres in the aspect of self-discipline and abide by the discipline to make clearly defined, especially the party's eighteen years strict political discipline and political rules, organization and discipline and
to implement the central eight provisions of the spirit against the four winds and other requirements into Disciplinary provisions. Not one pace reachs the designated position, focusing on in line with reality, pragmatic and effective. After the revision of major changes, major changes in the < code > and < rule > modified and needs to grasp several key problems (a) < code > < code > adhere to according to regulations governing the party and party with morals in combination, for at the present stage, the leadership of the party members and cadres and Party members in existing main problems of self-discipline, put forward principles, requirements and specifications, showing Communists noble moral pursuit, reflected at all times and in all over the world ethics from high from low 5 common requirements. One is closely linked to the "self-discipline", removal and no direct relation to the provisions of . the second is adhere to a positive advocate, "eight prohibition" 52 are not allowed to "about the content of the" negative list moved into synchronization amendment < cases >. Three is for all the party members, will apply object from the leadership of the party members and cadres to expand to all Party members, fully embodies the comprehensive strictly required. The fourth is prominent key minority, seize the leadership of the party members and cadres is the key, and put forward higher requirements than the ordinary Party members. Five is to simplify, and strive to achieve concise, easy to understand, easy to remember. The revised < code > is the ruling Party since the first insists on
a positive advocate forAll Party members and the self-discipline norms, moral declaration issued to all members of the party and the National People's solemn commitment. > < criterion of a clean and honest administration consists of 4 parts, 18, more than 3600 words. After the revision of the < code >, a total of eight, 281 words, including lead, specification and Party member cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms, etc. Part 3 members low-cost clean and self-discipline, the main contents can be summarized as "four must" "eight code". Lead part, reiterated on ideal and faith, fundamental purpose, the fine traditions and work style, noble sentiments, such as "four must" the principle of requirements, strong tone of self-discipline, The higher request for 6 and supervised tenet, the foothold in permanent Bao the party's advanced nature and purity, to reflect the revised standards requirements. Members of self-discipline norms around the party members how to correctly treat and deal with the "public and private", "cheap and rot" thrifty and extravagance "bitter music", put forward the "four norms". Party leader cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms for the leadership of the party members and cadres of the "vital few", around the "clean politics", from civil servant of the color, the exercise of power, moral integrity, a good family tradition and other aspects of the leadership of the party members and cadres of the "four norms" < > < norm norm. "The Party member's self-discipline norms" and "party members and leading cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms," a
total of eight, collectively referred to as the "eight". "Four must" and "eight" of the content from the party constitution and Party's several generation of leaders, especially Xi Jinping, general secretary of the important discussion, refer to the "three discipline and eight points for attention" statements, and reference some embody the Chinese nation excellent traditional culture essence of epigrams. (2) the revised regulations, the main changes in the revised Regulations > to fully adapt to the strictly requirements, reflects the according to the regulations governing the law of recognition of deepening, the realization of the discipline construction and Jin Ju. < rule > is party a ruler, members of the basic line and follow. And the majority of Party members and cadres of Party organizations at all levels should adhere to the bottom line of thinking, fear discipline, hold the bottom line, as a preventive measure, to keep the party's advanced nature and purity. 1, respect for the constitution, refinement and discipline. Revised < rule > from comprehensive comb physical constitution began, the party constitution and other regulations of the Party of Party organizations and Party discipline requirements refinement, clearly defined in violation of the party constitution will be in accordance with regulations to give the corresponding disciplinary action. The original 10 categories of misconduct, integration specification for political discipline, discipline, honesty and discipline masses Ji Law and discipline and discipline and other six categories, the content of < rule >
real return to Party discipline, for the majority of Party members and listed a "negative list. 7 2, highlighting the political discipline and political rules. > < Regulations according to the stage of the discipline of outstanding performance, emphasizing political discipline and political rules, organization and discipline, in opposition to the party's leadership and the party's basic theory, basic line, basic program and basic experience, the basic requirement of behavior made prescribed punishment, increase the cliques, against the organization such as violation of the provisions, to ensure that the central government decrees and the Party of centralized and unified. 3, adhere to strict discipline in the law and discipline In front, Ji separated. Revised < Regulations > adhere to the problem oriented, do Ji separated. Any national law existing content, will not repeat the provisions, the total removal of 79 and criminal law, repeat the content of the public security management punishment law, and other laws and regulations. In the general reiterated that party organizations and Party members must conscientiously accept the party's discipline, die van comply with national laws and regulations; at the same time, to investigate violations of Party members and even criminal behavior of Party discipline and
responsibility, > < Regulations distinguish five different conditions, with special provisions were made provisions, so as to realize the connection of Party discipline and state law. 4, reflect Wind building and anti-corruption struggle of the latest achievements. < rule > the party's eighteen years
implement the spirit of the central provisions of the eight, against the requirements of the "four winds" and transformation for disciplinary provisions, reflecting the style construction is always on the road, not a gust of wind. In the fight against corruption out of new problems, increase the trading rights, the use of authority relatives profit and other disciplinary terms. Prominent discipline of the masses, the new against the interests of the masses and ignore the demands of the masses and other disciplinary terms and make provisions of the disposition and the destruction of the party's close ties with the masses.
Discipline to protect the party's purpose. 8 of these regulations, a total of three series, Chapter 15, 178, more than 24000 words, after the revision of the regulations a total of 3 series, Chapter 11, 133, 17000 words, divided into "general" and "special provisions" and "Supplementary Provisions" Part 3. Among them, add, delete, modify the provisions of the proportion of up to nearly 90%. 1, the general general is divided into five chapters. The first chapter to the regulations of the guiding ideology, principles and scope of application of the provisions, highlight the strengthening of the party constitution consciousness, maintenance the authority of Party Constitution, increase the party organizations and Party members must abide by the party constitution, Yan Centralized centralized, would examine at all levels of the amended provisions implementing and maintaining Party discipline, and consciously accept the party discipline,
exemplary compliance with national laws and regulations. The second chapter of discipline concept, disciplinary action types and effects of the regulations, will be a serious warning from the original a year for a year and a half; increase the Party Congress representative, by leaving the party above (including leave probation) punishment, the party organization should be terminated its representative qualification provisions. The third chapter of the disciplinary rules of use prescribed in the discipline rectifying process, non convergence, not close hand classified as severely or heavier punishment. "Discipline straighten "At least eighteen years of five years, these five years is to pay close attention to the provisions of the central eight implementation and anti -" four winds ". The fourth chapter on suspicion of illegal party disciplinary distinguish five different conditions, with special provisions were made provisions, to achieve effective convergence of Party and country 9 method. < rule > the provisions of Article 27, Party organizations in the disciplinary review found that party members have committed embezzlement, bribery, dereliction of duty dereliction of duty and other criminal law act is suspected of committing a crime shall give cancel party posts, probation or expelled from the party. The second is < Regulations > Article 28 the provisions of Party organizations in the disciplinary review But found that party members are stipulated in the criminal law, although not involved in a crime shall be investigated for Party discipline and responsibility should
be depending on the specific circumstances shall be given a warning until expelled punishment. This situation and a difference is that the former regulation behavior has been suspected of a crime, the feeling is quite strict, and the latter for the behavior not involving crime, only the objective performance of the provisions of the criminal code of behavior, but the plot is a crime to slightly. < Regulations > the 29 provisions, Party organizations in the discipline review found that party members and other illegal behavior, affect the party's image, the damage to the party, the state and the people's interests, we should depend on the situation Seriousness given disciplinary action. The loss of Party members, seriously damaging the party's image of behavior, should be given expelled from the party. At this article is party member is in violation of the criminal law outside the other illegal acts, such as violates the public security administration punishment law, customs law, financial laws and regulations behavior. The fourth is < cases > Article 32 stipulates, minor party members and the circumstances of the crime, the people's Procuratorate shall make a decision not to initiate a prosecution, or the people's court shall make a conviction and exempted from criminal punishment shall be given within the party is removed from his post, probation or expelled from the party. Party members and crime, sheets were fined in accordance with For acts; the principal Ordinance amended the provisions of the preceding paragraph. This is the new content, in order to achieve Ji method effective
convergence. Five is < > the thirty third article 10 of the provisions, the Party member due to an intentional crime is sentenced to criminal law (including probation) sheets or additional deprivation of political rights; due to negligence crime and was sentenced to three years or more (excluding three years) a penalty, shall give expelled punishment. Due to negligence crime is convicted and sentenced to three years (including three years) in prison or be sentenced to public surveillance, detention, shall in general be expelled from the party. For the individual may not be expelled from the party, should control Approval. This is followed and retained the original > < Regulations the provisions of punishment party authorization rules and report to a level party organizations. For is "party members with criminal acts, and by the criminal punishment, generally should be expelled from the party". The fifth chapter of probationary Party member of the discipline and discipline after missing members of the treatment and punishment decisions, such as the implementation of the provisions, clear the related party discipline and punishment decision made after, for duties, wages and other relevant alteration formalities for the longest time. 2, sub sub section will the original regulations of
10 categories of acts of violation of discipline integration revised into 6 categories, respectively, in violation of the punishments for acts of political discipline "in violation of discipline behavior of punishment" in violation of integrity of disciplinary action points "of violation punishments for acts
of mass discipline" "the violation of work discipline, punishment" in violation of discipline of life behavior punishment "6 chapters. 3, annex" Supplementary Provisions "clear authority making supplementary provisions of, cases of interpretative organ, as well as regulations implementation time and retroactivity etc.. 11 (3) learning understanding > < regulations needs to grasp several key problems The first problem -- about the violation of political discipline behavior > < new ordinance chapter 6 the political discipline column for the six disciplines, that is the main opposition to Party leadership and the opposition of the basic theory, basic line, basic program and basic experience, basic requirements of misconduct made provisions of the disposition, especially the eighteen since the CPC Central Committee put forward the Yan Mingzheng treatment of discipline and political rules requirements and practical achievements transformation for Discipline article, increase the false debate central policies, cliques, against the organization review, make no discipline of the principle of harmony terms. These are the party's eighteen years in comprehensive strictly Process combined with the practice of rich content. (1) false debate the central policies and undermine the Party of centralized and unified the problem is made in accordance with the provisions of the party constitution. Constitution in general programme requirements adhere to democratic centralism is one of the requirements of the construction of the party must adhere to the four cardinal. Application
of this principle is not only the party the basic organization principle and is also the mass line in party life, it requires that we must fully develop inner-party democracy, respect for the dominant position of Party members, safeguarding the Party member democratic rights, give full play to the enthusiasm and creativity of the party organizations at all levels and Party members, at the same time, also must implement the right concentration, ensure the party's mission < the chaos in unity and concerted action to ensure that the party's decision to get quickly and effectively implementing. The Party Central Committee formulated the major principles and policies, through different channels and ways, fully listen to the party organizations and Party members of the opinions and suggestions, but 12 is some people face to face not to say back blather "" will not say, after the meeting said, "" Taiwan does not say, and nonsense ", in fact, not only disrupt the people thought, some causing serious consequences, the damage to the Party of the centralized and unified, hinder the central policy implementation, but also a serious violation of the democratic system of principles. There is no doubt that shall, in accordance with the Regulations > 4 Specified in Article 6 to give the appropriate punishment. For did not cause serious consequences, to give criticism and education or the corresponding tissue processing. (2) about the destruction of the party's unity < New Regulations > the forty eighth to fifty second article, to damage Party's unity unified and violation of political discipline, punishment situation
made explicit provisions. Article 52 of the new "in the party get round group, gangs seek private gain, cliques, cultivate private forces or through the exchange of interests, for their own to create momentum and other activities to gain political capital, given a serious warning or withdraw from their party posts disposition; if the circumstances are serious, to give Leave a party to observation or expelled from the party. (3) on against the organization review of the provisions of the constitution, party loyalty honesty is party members must comply with the obligations. Members must obey the organization decision, shall not violate the organization decided encounters by asking questions to find organization, rely on the organization, shall not deceive the organization, against the organization. For example, after the investigation does not take the initiative to explain the situation, but to engage in offensive and defensive alliance, hiding the stolen money is against survey organization, is a violation of the behavior of political discipline. Article 24 of the original > < Regulations, although the provisions of the interference, hinder group review the behavior of the fabric can be severely or 13 Aggravated punishment, but did not put this kind of behavior alone as a discipline for qualitative amount of discipline. > < new regulations increase the Article 57, "anti organization review, one of the following acts, given a warning or serious warning; if the circumstances are relatively serious, giving removed from or placed on probation within the party post; if the circumstances are serious, give
expelled from the party: (a) on supply or forged, destroyed, transfer, conceal evidence; (II) to prevent others expose, providing evidence
Material; (III) harboring co personnel; (4) to the organization to provide false information, to hide the fact; (5) the him against the acts of the organization review. "< rule > add this clause to the Constitution requires more specific, the previous no punishment in accordance with the definite list and put forward clear punishment in accordance with. (4) about organizing or participating in superstitious activities as < Regulations > about engage in activities of feudal superstition obstruction of social management order" violations of Article 164 the provisions, but according to the original < rule > only in disrupting production, work, social life order The case to be disciplinary treatment, in other words, alone make the feudal superstition, organize or participate in the activities of feudal superstition of, does not constitute a violation. Which is not consistent with the requirements of our party's political party. > < new regulations in this change is, superstitious activities on the political discipline, increase the Article 58, is the organization of Party members, in superstitious activities included in violation of the negative list of political discipline deserves punishment, which and Party members should adhere to the correct political principle, political standpoint and viewpoint is consistent. 14 the second question about organization and discipline violation behavior of democratic centralism is our The party's fundamental
organizational system. < New Regulations > Chapter 7 "in violation of the behavior of organizational discipline punishment" mainly for violation of democratic centralism, contrary to the "four obey the discipline behavior for source classification rules. Increased not in accordance with the relevant provisions or requirements to the organization for instructions to report on major issues; do not report truthfully report about personal matters; falsify personal archives; hide before joining the party serious mistakes; leading cadres in violation of the relevant provisions of the organization, will participate in the spontaneous formation of the old Xiang, Alumni Association, comrades in arms; to obtain illegal country residence abroad or foreign nationality, illegal for private frontier Documents such as discipline terms. (1) on the report truthfully report personal matters in 2010 the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China office, office of the State Council introduced < provisions on issues related to the leading cadres to report personal >, is clear about the request, deputy division level and above leading cadres should truthfully report changes in my marriage and spouse, children, moved to the country (territory), practitioners, income, real estate, investment and other matters, for failing to report, do not report, concealed and unreported, according to the seriousness of the case, giving criticism and education, and to make a correction within a time limit, shall be ordered to make a check, the commandment Jiemian conversation, informed criticism or jobs, free Post
processing, constitute violations, in accordance with the relevant provisions shall be given a disciplinary sanction. But since the original < Regulations > and there is no corresponding specific terms, the violation of the regulations, do not report, as a false report about personal matters, there is no corresponding disciplinary action terms, in practice it is difficult to operate. In this regard, in order to solve is not reported, as a false report about personal matters 15 asked censure, the new < Regulations > add the Article 67 of violation of personal matters related to reporting requirements, report truthfully report the clear punishment basis, making this kind of violation behavior is no longer free drilling for Exhibition on matters of personal checks to verify and supervision of cadres, discipline review provides a powerful discipline guarantee. (2) about the illegal organization, to fellow, alumni, friends of the war will < regulations stipulated in Article 68 of >, leading cadres of the party in violation of relevant provisions of the organization, will participate in the spontaneous formation of fellow, Alumni Association, comrade in arms to give the punishment according to the seriousness of the case. Here special needs note is three points: this provision for only the leading cadres ", reflecting the high requirements of leading cadres; second violation in 2002, the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, the central Organization Department and the The relevant provisions of the General Political Department jointly issued the < off in leading cadres not to participate in
the initiative to set up "the villagers would be" alumni "" comrades in arms organization notice >. That is to say, to the spontaneous formation of fellow, Alumni Association, comrades in arms will constitute the premise of discipline is a violation of the provisions of this. The notification specified, leading cadres are not allowed to participate in the spontaneous incorporation of fellow, alumni, between comrades association would like the organization and shall not bear the sorority
Human and the organizer shall not hold the corresponding position in the sorority; shall not borrow machine woven "network" and engage in kiss sparsely, round and round the gangs, but not "align" "Jieyi Gold Orchid" behavior. The third is to emphasize here that shall be organized to participate in the initiative to set up the villager, Alumni Association, comrades in arms. The so-called 16 spontaneous was established mainly means without registration. Therefore, Party members include leading cadres in the normal range of fellow, alumni, comrades in the party is not a violation of the rules of Party discipline. The three problem about integrity violations discipline Lian Jie discipline has been eighteen years clean government and anti The focus of the work of corruption. This Ordinance to amend, honesty and discipline this biggest adjustment, the new content, most of which prescribed by the original < criterion of a clean and honest administration > 8 ban and 52 are not allowed into the basic this part. (1) the central eight provisions of the spirit and requirements into < New > in
the regulations of the party's eighteen years, central resolutely implement the provisions of the eight and pay close attention to the node and intensive briefing, on public funds, private bus, public funds tourism, gifts of public funds, the big parade and lavish weddings and festive, illegal payment allowances and subsidies, illegal construction of buildings such as the original masses reflects the relatively strong, "four winds" problem of the Resolute rectification. But original < Regulations > to eat and drink, super standard reception and no clear and specific expression, new < rule > will implement eight Central provisions of the spirit of the problem increased to "clean cheap self-discipline" chapter, clear to exceed the standard, beyond the scope of the reception or borrow machine eating and drinking etc. some in violation of the provisions of the spirit of the eight central relevant persons responsible for punishment, once the violation will be according to the < rule > severely punished, binding, enhanced significantly. One is to add Article 87, about to obtain illegal, hold, and the actual use of the sports card, golf ball cards and other consumer card. Illegal access to private clubs made the punishment provisions. The second is increase the Article 97, has made provisions of the disposition of illegal self pay or 17 spamming allowances, subsidies and bonuses. The third is added to the Article 99, on violation of super standard, beyond the scope of the reception or borrow machine eat and drink to make the provisions of punishment. The fourth is to increase the Article 101, on the management
of conference activities in violation of the provisions made sanctions regulations. The fifth is the increased Article 102, for violation of office space management provisions made the punishment provisions. Six is to split the original < rule > Article 78, formed article 98, Article 100 of public Models of tourism, violate the provisions on the administration of the use of discipline of the bus through the list of made a more detailed provisions, apply more operational. Seven is increased the article 96, in violation of the relevant provisions of the, to participate in public funds to pay for dinner, high consumption of entertainment, fitness activities and public funds to buy gift, send gifts to make the provisions of the disposition. On the violation of the central provisions of the spirit of the eight, in addition to > < new regulations into "violation of honesty and self-discipline" misconduct outside, is different with the original < Regulations >, revised < rule > clearly defined not only to disposition of the directly responsible persons, but also dispose of collar Guide responsibilities. (2) increased trading rights, use of authority or position influence as relatives and close to profit violation of the terms of the < New Regulations > absorption < clean politics several guidelines > the relevant provisions spirit, increase the "negative list, including trading rights, the functions and powers or duties of influence as relatives and staff around profit. Increase Article 81" mutual use of office or authority ring for each other and their spouses, children and their spouses and other relatives,
around 18 personnel and other specific relationship between the people to seek benefits engage in trading rights, given a warning or serious warning Sanctions; if the circumstances are relatively serious, giving removed from or placed on probation within the party post; if the circumstances are serious, shall be expelled from the party. Increase Article 82 "connivance, acquiescence to the spouse, children and spouse etc. relatives and staff around the effect of Party members and cadres personal authority or position for personal gain, if the circumstances are relatively minor, given a warning or a serious warning; if the circumstances are relatively serious, giving removed from or placed on probation within the party post; if the circumstances are serious, the given
Expelled from the party. Party members and cadres of the spouses, children and their spouses does the actual work and get salary or although the actual work but to receive significantly beyond the same rank salary standard, Party members and cadres informed fails to correct, in accordance with the provisions of the preceding paragraph. "(3) about the gifts, gifts misconduct from handling practices in recent years, engaged in official cadres received gifts, gifts problems more prominent. This has seriously affected the image of Party members and cadres, damaged the relations between the party and the masses, and is a hotbed of corruption, is really necessary for this kind of behavior to be disciplined. < rule > no on accepting gifts, gifts, Card consumption behavior to engage in simple "one
size fits all", but the difference between the different separately. One is in accordance with the provisions of Article 83, accepting may affect the impartial enforcement of the official gifts, gifts, consumer cards to depending on the seriousness of the case shall be given disciplinary sanctions. That is to say, for may affect the fair execution of business gifts, gifts, consumer cards are not allowed to accept. 19 is in accordance with the provisions of Article 83, accepting was significantly higher than normal ceremony is still exchanges of gifts, gifts, consumer card to disciplinary action. This is new regulations that daily life is purely reciprocity, accepting the same thing, boys , fellow friends gifts, gifts, shopping cards, although and fair execution of business has nothing to do, also want to as the case shall be dealt with, the situation is obviously beyond normal reciprocity ". The so-called" reciprocity ", one is emphasizes the reciprocal in protocol. In other words is you to me how, I to you how, not only does not go. The second is to significantly exceeded the normal local economy level, customs and habits, economic capacity of individual gifts, gift value. Specific sanctions to according to the processing of a variety of factors to consider, as appropriate. The third is the root according to the provisions of Article 84," to Engaged in public service personnel and their spouses and children, children's spouses and other relatives and other specific relationship presented Ming Xianchao normal reciprocity of gifts, gifts, consumer card, if the circumstances are
relatively serious, given a warning until probation. "In accordance with the above provisions, gift giving significantly beyond the normal reciprocity, giver constitute the discipline. (4) on illegal trading of stocks or of other regulations of securities investment < > Article 88 is engaged in punishment regulation of camp and activity in violation of the relevant provisions on. Among them, 3 will" buying and selling stocks or in other securities investment "column as one of disciplinary cases Out. First need to be clear, > < regulations did not change the provisions of the Ordinance. The ordinance of the provisions of the second paragraph of Article 77 provisions "who, in violation of the provisions of the sale of stocks" is one of the violation, and at the beginning of the first paragraph of this article "violation of 20 against the relevant provisions of the" textual representation of the repeat revision. In, just from the legislative technique removed the "personal" in violation of the provisions, content and not to change the original provisions. Need to clear is, "buy or sell a stock or of other securities investment" refers to violation of the relevant provisions refers to in April 2001, the Party Central Committee, the State Council promulgated the On the work of the party and government organs staff's personal investment in securities if dry provisions >. According to the provisions of Article 3, use of work time, office facilities, the sale of stocks and securities investment fund belongs to illegal behavior. The fourth question, about the violation of the masses of the disciplinary actions <
new regulations > would violate public discipline behavior of a single set of a class of restored "three rules of discipline and eight note" in the discipline of the masses of excellent traditional. < New Regulations > Chapter 9 "to violate the masses of disciplinary action", mainly the destruction of the party's close ties with the masses of misconduct made provisions on disciplinary; enrich and perfect the super standard, beyond the scope of Xiang Qun < All to raise fund and labor, in for involving the public affairs deliberately, chinakayao, in social security, policy support, disaster relief funds and materials and other matters assigned any kind and affectionate friends, obviously unfair acts against the interests of the masses of the disciplinary terms; increase the terms not in accordance with the provisions of the public party provided, government, factory and village (neighborhood) provided etc. violation of the people's right to know the behavior of the discipline. The fifth issue, on the violation of work discipline violation of work discipline added "negative list, including Party organizations carry out strictly
Main responsibility for poor discipline terms. (1) the new party organization comprehensive strictly the main responsibility of the party does not fulfill the 21 or perform poor disciplinary terms < New Regulations > has a lead people to pay attention to the new terms, that is, in chapter ten "on the violation of work discipline behavior punishment" increase in the one hundred and fourteenth "party fail to perform
comprehensive strictly the main responsibility of the party or to perform comprehensive strictly the main responsibility for administering the ineffective, resulting in serious damage or serious adverse effects, to the person directly responsible and the responsibility of leadership and give a warning or serious warning. The situation is serious, giving removed from their party posts or on probation Punishment. "Here the changes. For the first time, the main responsibility write < rule >. (2) new shall report does not report or false reporting discipline shall increase the 117 bar" in the higher level units to check to inspect the work or report to the parent unit, work report of shall report the matters do not report or do not report, cause serious damage or serious adverse effects of, to the person directly responsible and the responsibility of leadership, to give warning or a serious warning; if the circumstances are serious, giving removed from their party posts or placed on probation. "For example, during the tour visits to the region, the unit Members the obligation to the inspection teams to reflect the true situation, to conceal not reported or intentionally to the inspection teams to provide false information, causing serious damage or serious adverse effects of, the person directly responsible and the responsibility of leadership should be in accordance with the provisions of < rule > Article 117 to give the appropriate punishment. (3) the new not granted in accordance with the provisions of punishment, not according to the provisions of the implementation of disciplinary measures 22 violation
of the provisions of Article 115 "Party organizations have one of the following circumstances, the direct leadership responsibility. Probation: members were sentenced punished, in accordance with the provisions give disciplinary action or in violation of state law Rules of behavior should be given disciplinary punishment and dispose of; disciplinary punishment by decision or complaint review the decision made, not in accordance with the provisions of the implementation decisions on punishment of the party, position, rank, and the treatment of the matters; Party members subject to disciplinary action, not in accordance with the cadre management authority and organizational relationships of by dispose of Party members to carry out education and supervision of daily management. "What needs to be pointed out is," cliff "demoted with cars, housing, secretary problem, implementation is not a discipline and party posts and ranks treatment by the organization department is responsible for the implementation, with cars, housing by the logistics department is responsible for the implementation of, Ji Commission responsible oversight responsibilities. The six questions, about the acts violating the discipline of life "in violation of discipline of life behavior punishment", mainly to "four winds" problems and a serious violation of social morality, family virtue acts of misconduct made provisions on disciplinary, an increase of extravagant life, contrary to the social public order and good customs disciplinary terms. Worth mentioning is, > < Regulations in Article 150
about "adultery" "mistress (Cardiff) formulation in the new < rule > is removed, to expand the scope of Article 127 provisions" and others hair improper sexual relations, let face disciplinary action Wider more strict. Four, and earnestly do a good job in the < code > and < rule > implement system of life lies in execution. < code > and < Regulations > is 23 Party organizations at all levels of a strong constraint and all Party members follow. Learning and implementing the < code > and < rule > is party committees (party), commission for discipline, discipline inspection group), the majority of Party members and cadres of the common responsibility, must party caught together, the party one execution. () Party committees (party) and play and implement comprehensive strictly the main responsibility, pays special attention to the two party regulations learning cross penetration. One is to Adhere to the party constitution is fundamental to follow, and resolutely safeguard the authority of the Party Chapter. The second is to adhere to the problem oriented, to strictly political discipline and political rule moments in the first place. The third is to adhere to the discipline and rules quite in front must not allow the bottom line to break the discipline. The fourth is to seriously organize the study of propaganda and education, in the city party members to create a disciplined, about the rules of the strong atmosphere. (II) Commission for Discipline Inspection at all levels (Discipline Inspection Group) to an important basis for the revised two party regulations as, adhere to easily
blame, strengthen supervision and enforcement
And early method in combining Ji, increase accountability efforts. One is to two regulations within the party important basis, adhere to the party constitution duties, with strict discipline to maintain the constitution authority. The second is to adhere to high standards and keep the bottom line, adhere to Ji Yan in law and discipline, the discipline and rules quite in front, grasping grasping small, easily blame, comprehensive use of supervision and discipline of "four kinds of form" in the discipline embodies the strict requirements and care for the discipline, tighten up, Yan. According to discipline in accordance with regulations to carry out disciplinary review. Increase the violations punishment, clues can initiate an investigation on the trial of cases According to the discipline on the provisions of the proportion of processing and control manager maintains discipline. To focus on investigating non convergence, don't accept hand serious disciplinary violations at the same time, pay more attention to the general review of discipline 24 behavior, and gradually increase the lighter punishment. Four is to illuminate two party regulations, combined with the local district of the Department of party conduct Lianzheng to relevant laws and regulations system clean, timely research proposes to establish, change, waste release opinion, avoid conflict, and the fasten system of cage, and gradually formed not rot, not rot, not want to rot system and working mechanism. (3) the leadership of the party members and cadres
should play an exemplary role. The rate of higher consciousness of the front of the Ordinance to lead practice self-discipline norms, leading to maintain discipline of seriousness and authority. One is the above rate, demonstration and guidance, take the lead in learning and mastering the < code > and < > the requirements and regulations, do the deep understanding, learning to use. The second is to play an exemplary role in abiding by discipline rate, take the lead in practicing self-discipline norms, firmly establish before the discipline are equal, the system has no privilege, discipline is no exception, and consciously do standards, require more strict measures more practical. Third is to consciously accept supervision, conscientiously participate in the democratic life and debriefing honesty responsibility, such as Real to the party organization to report personal matters, and to accept the supervision of the work and life of the normal, habits under the supervision of the exercise of power, to carry out the work. The fourth is to set an example for the strict enforcement of discipline. Leading cadres should take the lead in the maintenance of discipline of seriousness and authority, to dare to seriously, dare to struggle, dare to offend people, for misconduct not laissez faire, but do not indulge, not tolerate to ensure the party constitution of party compasses party put in place. (4) the majority of Party members and cadres to set high standards and hold the bottom line, consciously abide by the < code > and < rule >. One is to control the < standard > and < 25 cases >, tight Close connection
with their own thoughts, practical work and life, efforts to solve the problems, to enhance the study and implement of the effectiveness and pertinence. The second is to establish a high standard and hold the bottom line, consciously in the self-discipline pursuit of high standards, strictly in the party away from the red line discipline, discipline, about the rules and know fear, distrust, the formation of the honor system, comply with the system, safeguard system of good habits.
Regulations and discipline regulations of < < New Revision of the Communist Party of China clean fingered self-discipline criterion > and < Chinese Communist Party Disciplinary Regulations > is the Party Central Committee in the new situation to promote the comprehensive strictly root of the lift, the regulations of the party construction of keeping pace with the times. We should study and implement the Standards > and < > as the primary political task, adhere to the party constitution duties, adhere to the discipline of, Ji Yan in law, the full implementation of supervision and discipline accountability responsibilities for coordination and promotion "four overall" strategic layout in XX District vivid practice to provide a strong guarantee. - Si Jian Wu, and effectively enhance the implementation of the implementation of the < code > < > The consciousness of General Secretary Xi pointed out that the party is in charge of the party, to manage the party; strictly, it can cure good party. Criterion > and < rule > keep pace
with the times is our party to form a new potential strictly rules, to deepen understanding of the ruling law, is a comprehensive strictly, and strengthen the supervision within the party important grasper. Criterion > closely linked to the theme of self-discipline, self-discipline intensity-modulated, focusing on morality, for the majority of Party members and cadres set to see, feel the high standard, show the Communists noble moral sentiment; District Ordinance < < rule > the constitution of discipline integration into a political discipline, organization and discipline, honesty and discipline, discipline of the masses, work discipline, discipline, emphasize discipline, focusing on established rules, to draw the party organizations and Party members do not touch the bottom line. Party committees (party) to effectively strengthen the study and publicize the implementation of the < code > and < rule > the organization and leadership of criterion > and < > a full range, multi angle, deep publicity, the formation of study and publicize and implement the boom, in order to consolidate the development of good political environment to create a positive environment and atmosphere. The majority of Party members and cadres to strict requirements, the < rule > and < Ordinance cases > as a guide to action and behavior criterion, adhere to the moral standards and discipline of the bottom line, to maintain the discipline of worship and awe, learning, compliance, and maintain party discipline and rules of the model. The discipline inspection and supervision organs and cadres to the < code > and < > as the deepening of
the "three", and strengthen supervision and discipline of accountability is important to follow correctly grasp the use of supervision and discipline of "four types", promote the comprehensive strictly in new roots. Strict discipline, adhere to the discipline and rules quite in front of the enterprise in the implementation of expensive to implement to execute. The discipline inspection and supervision organs to implement the < code > and < Efforts to investigate cases > as an opportunity, adhere to the party should manage the party strictly, serious performance of their duties to promote two regulations implementation. Change discipline concept. From the simple "investigation of illegal" to a comprehensive "stare at violate discipline"; from the business case to prosecute the big cases and timely solve the signs of tilt to. From the orientation to the normal supervision; from the tube "minority" to resist the "most". Guide Party members and cadres to seriously implement the < code > and < rule >, consciously abide by the political, organizational, honest people, work, life six discipline. Urge the leadership cadres sent to play an exemplary role, take the lead in strictly enforced. Relaxation and rest Strong wind is Su Ji, closely linked to the "four winds" prone to multiple, the masses reflect the strong important nodes and, glued to the four winds "new form, new trends, seriously investigate and deal with violations of the central eight provisions of the spirit, to increase the bulletin exposure intensity, the formation of Chajiu" four winds "loudly, continue to release and discipline
must be strict signal. At the same time, extended supervision tentacles, through the development of the rural and fishery party conduct Lianzheng construction inspection, issued in a timely manner, Chajiu occurred in grassroots side of corruption and unhealthy, and earnestly safeguard the interests of the masses and social stability. The creativity and discipline. Grasp and make good use of the supervision and discipline of" four types ", to ensure the Promoting clues to lots of discipline and the law of the vacuum tube, strict together. Not only to the "less" and "very few" thorough investigation severely punished, but also the "most" to maintain zero tolerance trend through layers of conductive pressure, let the discipline about the rules for each party members and cadres consciously follow. At present, it is necessary to implement the "list" management, strictly follow the clues to the disposal of five standards, make the classification of disposal, dynamic cleanup. Zadok Party committees at all levels to implement the main responsibility, comprehensive use of disciplinary action and tissue processing and other means to effectively curb the commonplace, used to see do not blame the "small problem", not because of "practice" and "exception". Prominent Discipline
characteristics, the problems of violation of discipline and rules into the focus of supervision and discipline and disciplinary review. At the same time, increase case double check the intensity, the serious problems of discipline violations or "four winds" ban but not absolutely, not only to be
held directly responsible, but also held leadership responsibility; not only to pursue studies the main responsibility of the Party committee, and to pursue Commission for Discipline Inspection and supervision
responsibilities and promote accountability to become the new norm. The implementation of supervisory responsibility. Maintain < code > and < rule > the seriousness and authority of the discipline and rules and truly become the party's ruler. Discipline as supervision within the party the specialized agency, we must strengthen the responsibility to act, adhere to the Impartial discipline accountability, earnestly will be strict discipline, discipline must be punished, and severely punish the acts in violation of rules and regulations.
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