教育技术学专业英语教案

教育技术学专业英语教案 Teaching Plan Lecture Week 1 Objectives and Tasks 1. General introduction 2. Definitions and evolution of Instructional/Educational Technology General Introduction Objectives and Tasks of Professional English for Educational Technology The course of Professional English for Educational Technology is conducted to help build an ability to use English as a tool in the student‘s profession of education. In order to achieve this goal, this course lays the base on listening, speaking and reading and the emphasis on translation and writing, for which the student is required to do the following: 1. Read every text in each chapter and try to understand them best as possible. Translate the texts into Chinese orally and, if there is difficulty, on paper. 2. Memorize the New Words, Phrases and Expressions and Professional Vocabulary in each chapter. 3. Refer to the Notes to the Text and Selected Translation for Reference if necessary while reading the texts. 4. Do the Suggested Activities and other homework assigned by the teacher, and read the Extended Materials. 5. Note: The average marks of the homework will take up 50 percent of the final total marks. 6. Keep the Appendices in mind and try to invoke any item in them in professional work. 7. Pay special attention to the key and difficult points in their respective chapters (See Chapter Outline in the handout). 8. Preview before a new lesson begins. 9. How to preview 1) Read through all the texts to be studied next time and refer to any materials in or out of the texts if necessary; 2) Mark out any questions or difficulty; 3) Prepare any questions to ask in class; and 4) Get ready to say something in English in class. 1 Structure of the Book and Time Allocation 1. Structure of the book 1) Unit 1 An Overview of Instructional Technology 2) Unit 2 The Theoretical Foundation of Educational Technology 3) Unit 3 Media and Learning 4) Unit 4 Instructional Design 5) Unit 5 The Information Technology and Education 6) Unit 6 Distance Education 7) Unit 7 Research Methodologies for Instructional Technology 2. Time allocation: Roughly four hours for each unit Chapter One The Evolution of the Definitions Key PointThe AECT‘s Definitions in 1994 Difficult Point：The AECT‘s Definitions in 1994 1. Early definitions (pp. 3-5) 1) The 1963 definition (Ely) (p. 3) a) Audiovisual communication (formal denomination/name) b) A major departure from the earlier media-oriented definition c) Focus on learning rather than teaching 2) The 1970 definition in two ways (Commission on Instructional Technology) (p. a) Instructional technology (formal denomination) b) The first definition: Instructional technology as media, concepts expressed from the audiovisual past c) The second definition: Instructional technology as a process, introducing new concepts such as systematic, objectives and evaluation 3) Another 1970 definition (Silber, AECT) (p. 4): The idea of ―problems‘ is first introduced and at the core of the definition. 4) The 1971 definition (in Ely) (p. 5): The term educational technology is used. 5) The 1972 definition (AECT) (p. 4): as processes, not much difference 6) The 1977 definition (AECT) (p. 4): as process, not much difference 2. Evolution of definition and differences from one definition to another (the whole chapter) 3. AECT‘s definitions in 1994 (pp. 5-6) 1) Five separate areas of concern: design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation 2) A development from the previous; not process-oriented 3) Domains of Instructional Technology (p. 5) 4) Relationship between Domains of the Field (p. 6) 2 5) Similar definition given by Reiser, 2001, but with the name of instructional design and technology rather than instructional technology 4. Assumptions behind AECT‘s definition in 2005 (pp. 6-8) 1) Definition: a temporary one, a snapshot in time Educational technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources. 2) Assumptions behind it a) A general definition, a stipulatory definition b) A definition intending to be clear, precise, and unambiguous, and to draw boundaries c) A definition referring explicitly to core values implied in educational technology, a major departure from past AECT definitional efforts d) A definition meant to be connected with AECT‘s most recent prior definition of 1994, as an improvement and updating, evolutionary rather than revolutionary e) A definition sensitive to the standards for the accreditation of university programs preparing teachers and specialists in the educational technology field f) A definition as inclusive as possible 5. Mission currently embraced by AECT (p. 8) To provide international leadership by promoting scholarship and best practices in the creation, use, and management of technologies for effective teaching and learning in a wide range of settings. 6. Future of definition (p. 8): subject to paradigm shift Reference Ely, Donald P. – Ph.D., Syracuse University, Communications and Psychology, 1961, Professor and Chair, Instructional Design, Development and Evaluation; Associate Director, ERIC Clearinghouse on Information and Technology Syracuse University, New York Seels, Barbara B. – School of Education, University of Pittsburgh, 5142 Wesley W. Posvar Hall, Pittsburgh, PA 15260 (Ph.D., Mass Communications, Ohio State University, 1970; M.S., Instructional Communications, Syracuse University, 1963; B.A., English & Drama, Bucknell University, 1961) Richey, Rita C. – Dr. Rita C. Richey is Professor and Program Coordinator in Instructional Technology for the College of Education at Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan. She received her B.A. in English from the University of Michigan, her M.A. in Psychology of Reading from the University of Michigan and her Ph.D. in Instructional Technology from Wayne State University. Dr. Richey's teaching and research interests include Instructional Design, Research and Theory in Instructional Technology, History and Trend in Instructional Technology. Silber, Kenneth – Dr. Kenneth Silber is the founder and President of Silber Performance Consulting, Chicago, Illinois. He holds a Ph.D. and M.A. in Instructional Technology, with minors in Organizational and Educational Psychology from the University of Southern California, and a 3 B.A. with a major in Psychology from the University of Rochester. He speaks French and has studied at the Alliance Francaise since 1981. Homework 1. Suggested Activities and Extended Materials. 2. Try to understand Selected Translation for Reference 3. Preview Chapters 2 Lecture Week 2 Objectives and Tasks Learn the History of instructional technology Chapter Two The History of Instructional Technology Key Point1980s-Present Difficult Point：1950s-1970s Section A Before 1920 1. Theory 1) E. L. Thorndike (1874-1949), a behavioral psychologist at Columbia University, an early figure in the effort to establish a scientific knowledge base for the research of human learning, especially for instructional technology (p. 13) He was the founder of Laboratory Animal Psychology. His contribution to instructional technology a) The law of Effect b) establish a scientific knowledge base Behaviorism: Based on observable changes in behavior. Behaviorism focuses on a new behavioral pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic. 2) John Deway (1859-1952) and Progressivism (p. 13) Learning by doing Experience + Reflection=Learning 前者是指学习者从实际操作中获得学习，例如幼童从操弄实物个数而获得“数字”概念。 后者是指学习者除了实地亲身体验外，还必须反省思考经验的意义，使学习进一步加深。 2. Practice Audio instructions and audiovisual instructions (p. 13) Section B Between the 1920s and 1940s 1. The audiovisual movement (pp. 13-14) 4 Using Visuals and tremendous growth in the visual instructional movement. The formation of professional organizations: 1) The National Academy for Visual Instruction (1919) 2) The American Educational Motion Picture (1919) 3) The Department of Visual Instruction (DVI) (1923) 4) The Visual Instruction Association of America (1922) 2. Major events that influenced the future development of the movement (p. 14) 1) The behavioral objective movement行为目标运动 a) Early advocates: Bobbitt, Charters, and Burk b) Ralph Tyler (1902-1994), father of the behavioral objective movement c) His Eight-Year Study in the Ohio State University (1933-1941) and its significance 2) The media personnel and psychologist in the military agent during World War II (p. 14) 3) Works written during this period (p. 14) 4) Edgar Dale (1900-1985) and his Cone of Experience (pp. 14-15) Years ago an educator named Edgar Dale, often cited as the father of modern media in education, developed from his experience in teaching and his observations of learners the "cone of experience" (see Figure 1). The cone's utility in selecting instructional resources and activities is as practical today as when Dale created it. 5 Section C Between the 1950s and 1970s 1.The shift from Audiovisual Instruction to Instructional Technology (pp. 15-17) Trends affecting the evolution of the field: 1) Programmed instruction and task analysis (p. 15) a) Definition of programmed instruction (p. 15 Second line from the bottom) b) Sydney L. Pressey and his first teaching machine (1934) (p. 15 Para.2) c) B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) of Harvard University and his ―Skinner Box‖ (p. 15 para.2) d) Robert Glaser and his term Instructional System (1962) (p. 16) e) Robert M. Gagné and task analysis (1965) (p. 16) three techniques for task analysis: topic analysis; Procedural analysis; outline, flowchart or table f) The Conditions of Learning by Gagné (1965) and Principles of Instructional Design by Gagné and L. J. Briggs (1974) (p. 16) g) The Dick and Carey Model (1978) (p. 16) During this period, instructional technology became more and more complex because threw were more and more teaching medias. 2). Theories of communications and general system (p. 16) a) Claude E. Shannon and Warren Weaver and their book Mathematical Theory of Communication and model for communication b) Harold Lasswell and his ―Five W‘s model Who says what to whom in which channel with what effect. c) Wilbur Schramm and his communication models and six ways to categorize delivery systems d) The major contributions to the general system theory made by Charles Hoban, Jr. (1956) and James Finn (1960s) 3). From media specialists to professionals of instructional technology (p. 16) 2. Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) (1970) (pp. 16-17) Section D After 1980* Factors affecting the field during this period: 1. Electronic performance support systems (p. 17 Para 3) 2. Knowledge management systems (p. 17 Para 3 ) 3. Learner-centered learning environments (p. 17 Para 3 ) 4. Constructivism (p. 17 Para 4 ) 5. The Internet for distance education and learning (p. 17 Para 5) 6. Future development (p. 17 Para 6) 1) Distance education and learning 2) The constructivist movement 3) The Internet in cooperative and collaborative learning 4) Knowledge management 5) The performance technology movement 6) Electronic performance support system (EPSS) 7) Virtual reality (VR) 8) Networks for instructional purposes 6 Reference law of effect 这是桑代克（E．L．Thorndike）在《动物智慧》《ANIMAL INTELLGENCE》（1898）一书中提出的学习原理。这一研究，在心理学中具有最早的动物实验的意义，就学 习这一心理现象而言，在最早提出心理学法则这一点上，也具有历史性的意义。动物发生某 种反应时，反应的结果若给动物带来愉快，则此时的刺激和反应就结合起来，以后在类似的 情况下，这个反应就容易发生。这种观点是一种联想主义，不久与巴甫洛夫（I．P．Pa－vlov）的条件反射的观点一起，被瓦聪（J．B．Watson）所采纳，成为美国行为主义心理学的主要 的原理。 E. L. THORNDIKE‘S ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE MONOGRAPH Edward L. Thorndike‘s monograph（专著）, Animal Intelligence: An Experimental Study of the Associative Processes in Animals is reviewed with respect to three contemporary issues: the relation between human behavior and that of other animals, the law of effect, and research methods for studying behavior. Thorndike employed an experimental analysis, rather than relying on either anecdote or naturalistic observation, to study problem solving and other behavioral processes of cats, dogs, and chicks. His analysis focused on whether the similarities between humans and other animals were homologous, that is, functionally equivalent, or whether they were merely analogous in form. Concluding the latter, he used the law of effect, not stated as such until long after the monograph was published, to account for the behavioral processes he studied, without appeal to reason or other cognitive mechanisms. His combination of applying experimental methods to the study of animal behavior and his insistence on objectivity in behavioral description were prescient of such later behaviorists as Watson and Skinner. Progressivism 进步主义是20世纪上半期盛行于美国的一种教育哲学思潮，对当时的美国学校教育产 生相当大的影响。起源自反对传统教育的形式主义。20世纪初杜威（J. Dewey, 1859-1952）将其实用主义（Pragmatism）哲学运用于教育领域，其实验和理论更壮大了进步主义的声势， 甚至远播至中国。1910至1920年代，美国建立了许多新学校，许多旧学校也加入进步主义 的阵营。都市地区的学校更广泛地采用活动课程、核心课程与设计教学法。这些学校的特色 是儿童本位、较宽容的训导、男女合校、课程实验，不重视学业与考试，鼓励艺术与手工学 习。1919年进步教育学会成立，1930年代达到全盛时期。第二次世界大战后，人们逐渐意 识到进步主义的教育并不能提高知识水平，进步主义教育运动遂渐次衰退，1955年进步教育协会解散，宣告了这个时代的结束；但是进步主义的思想至今对美国教育仍有影响。 杜威曾对流行半个世纪的进步主义教育运动的成败有所评价，也认为该思潮最大的成就 是改变了课堂生活的气氛，对儿童的需要有了更多的认识，师生关系更为民主化，但是进步 主义教育的弱点，则在知识性教材的选择与组织方面，有待大力改善（张芬芬，2000：249-250）。 Homework 1. Suggested Activities and Extended Materials. 2. Try to understand Selected Translation for Reference 3. Preview Chapter 3 & 4 7 Lecture Week 3 Objectives and Tasks 1. Chapter Three Instructional Technology: Present and Future 2. Part of Chapter Four Learning Theories Chapter Three Instructional Technology: Present and Future Key PointThe Diverse Status of Instructional Technology Difficult PointThe Professionalizing of the Field 1. Positive trends (p. 23) 1) Instructional technologists more eclectic(choosing from a wide rang) in the philosophies (objectivism, behaviorism, cognitivism 认知论, constructivism, postmodernism), not adhering to a single ideology, drawing from what is best for the given situation, learner and content 2) Distance education growing in acceptance, use and quality 2. Negative trends (pp. 23-24) 1) Evaluation valued but infrequently used. 2) Instructional development practiced more in non-school settings than in schools 3. Diverse status (pp. 24-25) Question: Do you think instructional technology can be qualified as discipline(学科)? 1) Diversity of program and research identities of the field 2) Unrealistic striving for a unifying instructional technology agenda 3) Alessi‘s suggestion that the research and development of instructional technology be embedded into education 4. Professionalizing of the field(p. 25) Although instructional or educational technology plays a very important role in improving learning and makes great contributions to learning, it is not qualified as an independent discipline because people working in this field are mostly craftsmen, not professionals. It does not meet professional standards. 5. Training of professionals (mentors) (pp. 25-26) 6. Choosing our future (p. 26) Instructional technology‘s challenge in coming years will be in maintaining strong, broad-based grounding for professional practice, with a focus on a selected few cohering principles and purposes to keep the field together. 8 Chapter Four Learning Theories Key PointCognitive Information-Processing Theory Difficult PointConstructivism 1. Necessity of the theories of learning (pp. 35-36) 1) The intuitive definition of learning: People can do something that they could no do before or the know something that they did not know before. 2) The psychological definition of learning: a persisting change in human performance or performance potential. 3) A solid foundation in various learning theories: ISD professionals must be familiar with the theory and research on learning and must be able to apply them to actual practice. 4) Various theories a) Piaget‘s childhood education b) Ausubel and Rothkopf‘s textual materials c) Bandura‘s social learning theory d) Bruner‘s rich philosophical insight into discovery learning and problem solving e) Keller‘s work on motivation f) Knowles‘ emphasis on factors that facilitate adult learning g) Cognitive science of Klatzky, Anderson, Gagne, Wildman and Burton, of how humans perceive, process, store, and retrieve information, and their schema theory, elaboration, metacognition, automaticity, expert/novice studies, and transfer 2. Behaviorism (pp. 36-37) 1) John B. Watson (1878-1958), the first behaviorist (See note) 2) Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949) 3) James Hartley 4) The stimulus-response (S-R) model a) Three underlying/basic key assumptions , Observable behavior as the focus of study and learning manifested by a change in behavior , Behavior shaped by the environment and learning determined by the elements in the environment, not by the individual learner , The principles of contiguity and reinforcement central in explaining the learning process b) Four key principles in terms of learning , Activity , Repetition, generalization and discrimination (practice) , Reinforcement 9 , Clear objectives Reference John B.Watson(1878-1958) Watsonian behaviorism 华生（1878—1958），美国心理学家，行为主义心理学的创始人。他认为心理学研究的对 象不是意识而是行为，心理学的研究方法必须抛弃‖内省法‖，而代之以自然科学常用的实验 法和观察法。华生在使心理学客观化方面发挥了巨大的作用。1915年当选为美国心理学会 主席。 Educated at Furman University and the University of Chicago. Was professor of psychology and director of the Psychological Laboratory at Johns Hopkins University from 1908 to 1920. Founder of behaviorist school of psychology. Concluded that heredity is a minor factor in human being‘s actions. Taught at Johns Hopkins University from 1908 – 1920. Major works: Animal Education (1903) Behavior (1914) Behaviorism (1925; revised ed., 1936) Psychological Care of Infant and Child (1928) Homework 1. Suggested Activities and Extended Materials in these two chapters; 2. Preview Chapters 5 3. Translation (P25 Section D The Training of the Professionals) Lecture Week 4 Objectives and Tasks 1. The rest part of Chapter Four Learning Theories 2. Chapter Five Communication Theories Chapter Four Learning Theories (continued) 3. Cognitive information-processing theory (pp. 37-39) 1) Input (stimuli) 2) Output (behavior) 3) Feedback (reinforcement) 4) Three memory systems a) Sensory memory b) Short-term memory 10 c) Long-term memory 5) Attention, encoding and retrieval 6) Stage Model of information processing (p. 38) Cognitive psychology focuses on information-processing. Its essential theory bases on the computer information processing perspective and regards the working of human brain as a computer information processing system. 其理论实质，就是以计算机信 息加工的观点来研究人的心理学活动，把人脑看作是一种如同计算机的 信息加工系统 Similar to behavioral theory: the environment plays an important role in learning: Difference from behavioral theory: its assumption of internal processes within the learner that explain learning 4. Constructivism (pp. 39-40) Differences between cognitive and constructive theory: 1) In the information-processing theory, learning is mostly a matter of going from the outside in. 2) In the constructivist approaches, learning is more a matter of going from the inside out. 3) The greatest impacts (strong impression)of constructivism on the field a) Attention on high-level, complex learning goals such as ―the ability to write persuasive essays, engage in informal reasoning, explain how data relate to theory in scientific investigations, and formulate and solve moderately complex problems that require mathematical reasoning‖ b) A substantial impact on views pertaining to the learning conditions and instructional strategies believed essential to the support of important learning goals 4) Recommendation of the creation and use of complex learning environments that should: a) Engage learners in activities authentic to the discipline in which they are learning; b) Provide for collaboration and the opportunity to engage multiple perspectives on what is being learned; c) Support learners in setting their own goals and regulating their own learning; and d) Encourage learners to reflect on what and how they are learning. 5. Comparison of four research orientations to learning (pp. 40-41) Four orientations: behaviorist, cognitivist, humanist, social and situational Six aspects: learning theorists, view of the learning process, locus of learning, purpose in education, educator‘s role, manifestations indult learning 11 Chapter Five Communication Theories Key PointProcess of Communication Difficult PointModels of Communication Why do we need to learn theories of communication? To study the theory of communication media and the teaching process, and explore the media's role in the process of teaching mechanism is the traditional research approach of educational technology, and thus was born the dissemination of education. 用传播理论来研究媒体与教学过程，探索媒体在教学过程中的作用机理，是教育技术学的传 统研究途径，并由此诞生了教育传播学。 American political scientist Harold Lasswell (H. D. Lasswall) proposed a general process of dissemination of the five basic elements (5W) linear propagation mode in "social communication structure and function" in 1948. Each "W" correspondents to the element of teaching process. These elements become the important factors that should be considered in instructional technology in its researching teaching process and teaching resources naturally. This 5w are: 美国政治学家哈罗德?拉斯韦尔(H.D.Lasswall)1948年在《社会传播的构造与功能》一文中提出了一般传播过程中的五个基本元素（5W）的直线式传播模式。其中每个"W"都类同于教学 过程中的一个相应要素，这些要素自然也成为研究教学过程、教学资源的教育技术学所关心、考 虑的重要因素。这5w所指的分别是： Who 谁 教师或其他信息源 Says what 说什么 教学 In which channel 通过什么渠道 教学媒体 To whom 对谁 教学对象即学习者 With what Effect 产生什么效果 教学效果 1. Three dimensions of communication (p. 46) Observation Intention Normative judgment (success or accuracy) 2. Communication theory (pp. 47-48) Levels of communication (pp. 47-48) a) Interpersonal communication b) Group communication c) Organizational communication d) Mass communication 3. Elements included in core communication theories (p. 48) Development of messages Interpretation and generation of meaning 12 Message structure consisting of the elements of messages in writings, the spoken words, and nonverbal forms Interactional dynamics Institutional and societal dynamics and the interaction among segments of society 4. A basic linear model of human communication (pp. 48-49) The sender decides to initiate a message with a specific set of intended meanings The sender encodes the intended meanings by selecting specific words and gestures that the receiver will presumably understand The message is transmitted (spoken or written) so as to cross the space between sender and receiver The receiver attends to and perceives the incoming message The receiver decodes the message The receiver is influenced in some way (The communication has some effect) 5. Models of communication (pp. 50-52) The Shannon-Weaver Model (p. 50) The Osgood-Schramm Circular Model (p. 51) Berlo‘s SMCR Model (p. 52) Reference 1.加涅关于学习过程的八个阶段是：（1）动机阶段（期待）；（2）领会阶段（注意选择性知觉）；（3） 获得阶段（编码）；（4）保持阶段（储存）；（5）回忆阶段（检索）；（6）概括阶段（迁移）；（7）动作阶段 （反应）；（8）反馈阶段（强化）。 现代从国外引进的信息加工学习理论颇为流行。最概括地说，这种理论把学习过程描述为信息输入— 编码—加工—贮存—译码—输出的过程。目前，也有一种观点不赞同这种模拟，认为信息概念、信息过程 的应用虽然十分广泛，在某种程度上对机器适用，对人类也适用，但没有囊括人类认识的特殊性和复杂性。 人的认知过程主要是以理性认识为主导，以个体经验为基础，并始终伴随着情感和意志活动。人类的学习 是受人的意向调节的，而这些只用信息过程是代替不了的。同时，机器与人脑不同，人脑的思维是长期社 会实践的结果，人的意识是社会的产物，而电子计算机是没有意义的思维。就是当前世界上最复杂的尖端 计算机，也是人脑制造的。特别是人不但能认识世界，而且在认识的基础上，还要改造世界，在改造世界 的同时，也改造自己的主观世界。这些远非电子计算机所能办到。因此，有人主张应研究一种新的学习模 式来代替信息加工模式。 2.―Shannon-Weaver 13 它把传播过程分为七个基本要素：信息源、编码、信道、解码、信息接收者、噪声和反馈。他们认为， 传播的过程是“信息源”即传者，把要提供的信息经过“编码”，即转变为某种符号，如声音、文字、图 片、图像等，通过一种或多种媒体传出。“信息接收者”即受者，对经过“编码”的信息进行“解码”， 即解释符号的意义。 现代教育技术采用香农―韦弗的传播模式，主要在于选择、制作适合表达和传播教育信息的现代教育 媒体，及时分析来自各种渠道的反馈信息，以取得教育的最优化。 3. 贝罗（David K.Belo）的传播模式，综合了哲学、心理学、语言学、人类学、大众传播学、行为科学等新 理论，来解释在传播过程中的各个不同要素。 这一模式把传播过程分解为四个基本要素：信源、信息、通道、和接收者，如图2-7所示。 图 2-7 贝罗模式 Homework 4. Suggested Activities and Extended Materials in these two chapters; 5. Preview Chapters 6 Lecture Week 5 Objectives and Tasks 1. Comment on homework 2. Instructional theories Comment on Homework (Tentative) 14 Chapter Six Instructional Theories Key PointGagne‘s Theory of Instruction; Bloom‘s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives Difficult PointJohn Dewey‘s Experience and Education 1. Gagné‘s theory of instruction (pp. 58-59) 1)Three components (cognitive, affective, and psychomotor) 三大部分 a) A taxonomy of learning outcomes that defines the types of capabilities humans can learn; b) Internal and external learning conditions associated with the acquisition of each category of learning outcome; and c) Nine events of instruction that each facilitates a specific cognitive process during learning 2). Five major categories of learning学习结果分类 a) Verbal information (knowing) b) Intellectual skills (applying) c) Cognitive strategies (effective ways of thinking and learning) d) Attitudes (feelings and beliefs that govern choices of personal action) e) Motor skills (executing precisely, smoothly and accurately timed movements 3) Nine events of instruction as learning conditions九段教学法 (1) Gaining attention (2) Informing the learner of the objective (3) Stimulating recall of prior learning (4) Presenting the stimulus (5) Providing learning guidance (6) Eliciting performance (7) Providing feedback (8) Assessing performance (9) Enhancing retention and transfer 2. Bloom‘s taxonomy of educational objectives (pp. 59-60) 1) Different levels or outcomes of learning (p. 60) 2) Bloom‘s hierarchical taxonomy of cognitive performance (p. 60) 认知目标等级分类法 a) Knowledge (Remembering previously learned material) b) Comprehension (Grasping the meaning of material) c) Application (Using information in concrete situations) d) Analysis (Breaking down material into parts) e) Synthesis (Putting parts together into a whole) f) Evaluation (Judging the value of a product for a given purpose, using definite criteria) 3) Twofold value of Bloom‘s taxonomy (p. 60) 15 a) Stimulating teachers to help students acquire skills at all those levels, laying the proper foundation for higher levels by first assuring mastery of lower-level objectives b) Providing a basis for developing measurement strategies to assess student performance 3. Programmed Instruction (PI) (pp. 61-62) 1) B. F. Skinner, father of Programmed Instruction (p. 61) 2) Skinner‘s arguments for PI (p. 61) Immediate knowledge of results Individualized learning Expert instruction 3) Reasons for PI‘s fading into obscurity in the 1970s (p. 62) Boring PI packages The pace of learning individualized; the content and the sequence of content not individualized Impossibility to break subject matter down into small digestible bits of information for many types of material Learning in isolation not always most effective Tendency to isolate factual information from its context 4. Summary of John Dewey‘s experience and education (pp. 62-63) 1) Education and democracy are intimately / closely connected 2) A good education: including a societal purpose and a purpose for the individual student 3) Two extremes in education: traditional and progressive 4) Dewey‘s view on experience a) Experience arises from the interaction of two principles, continuity and interaction b) No experience has preordained value. c) The value of experience is to be judged by the effect 5) Dewey‘s emphasis on the subjective quality of a student‘s experience and the necessity for the teacher to understand the students‘ past experiences Summary: Part 1 (Paragraph 1): Dewey‘s point of view about education and democracy and what a good education should include. Part 2 (Para.2—4): the two extremes in education—traditional and progressive and Dewey‘s criticism to these two extremes Part 3 (para.5--9) Dewey‘s view on experience Part 4 (para.10) Dewey‘s emphases on the subjective quality of a student‘s experience and the necessity for the teacher to understand the students‘ past experiences 16 Reference 加涅根据学习的阶段提出了教学过程的九个阶段 内部过程 教学事件 行动例子 接 收 1. 引起注意 使用突然的刺激变化 预 期 2.告知学习者目标 告诉学习者在学习之后,他们将能够做些什么 要求回忆先前习得的知识或技能 提取到工作 3.刺激回忆先前的学习 显示具有区别性特征的内容 记忆中 4.呈现刺激 提出一个有意义的组织 选择性知觉 5.提供―学习指导‖ 要求学生表现出行为 语义编码 6.引出行为 给予信息反馈 反 应 7.提供反馈 要求学业习者另外再表现出行为并给予强化 强 化 8.评价行为 提供变化了的练习及复习 提取和强化 9.促进保持和迁移 提取并概括化 Homework 1. Suggested Activities and Extended Materials in this chapter; 2. Preview Chapters 7 & 8 Lecture Week 6 Objectives and Tasks 1. Systematic theory 2. Media history Chapter Seven Systematic Theory Key PointSystems Theory Difficult PointSystems Theory: The Basics 17 1. Systems theory 1) Systems theory, the study of systems as a whole 2) Cybernetics, the study of control and communication processes in living beings (humans and other animals), machines, or both functioning together 3) System dynamics, a methodology for studying and managing complex feedback systems, such as one finds in business and other social systems 4) Chaos theory 5) Social dynamics 6) Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1901-1972, Vienna, the General System Theory), William Ross Ashby (1903-1972, London, Cybernetics), and Niklas Luhmann (1927-1998, German) 2. Some basic concepts 1) A system contains a structure of organized components of different types. 2) No system exists in isolation. 3) The functioning of a system affects multiple other systems and is affected by multiple other systems. 4) All systems are components of larger systems and are composed of smaller systems (with the exception of the universe and the smallest component of energy or matter). 5) The constant interaction between systems results in a constant state of change. 6) A system is in a state of balance when it remains stable while there are changes in other systems. Balance is a fundamental concept in nature. 7) Time is a significant dimension and different effects occur over time. 8) A system exerts a feed-forward effect upon a second system. This effect may be stimulatory (positive) or inhibitory (negative). The second system may then exert a feedback effect on the first system, which may be either stimulatory or inhibitory. 9) Modulation occurs when the feedback or feed-forward is a complex combination of different positive and negative effects. 3. The open systems model 4. The closed system model 5. Basic principles concerning a sequence of events 1) An event is the result of a sequence of events over time between or within systems and causes multiple events in other systems. 2) A cycle is a repetitive sequence of events. 3) Cycling may retain balance as a result of repetitive oscillations. 4) Spiraling occurs when there is a sequential effect that magnifies the initial effect. 5) Growth is attaining a higher level of integration. 6) A growth spiral (or growth cycle) occurs when spiraling has an increasingly integrative effect. 7) Hierarchy can by used to rank by different criteria such as size, space, time or the significance of causes and effects. 18 Chapter Eight Media History Key PointSeven Milestones in the Evolution of Human Communication Difficult PointTimeline of Media Development 1. Seven Milestones in the evolution of human communication (p. 77) 1) Language – 200000 B. C. 2) Writing – 3500 B. C. 3) Printing – A. D. 1500 4) Telegraphy/Telephony – A. D. 1800s (1837/1876) 5) Photography/Motion Pictures – A. D. 1800s (1827/1894) 6) Radio/TV – First half of the 20th century 7) Computers -- 1946 2. Lessons that can be drawn from the milestones (p. 78) 1) It is difficult to predict the ultimate use of a new medium. 2) The emergence of a new communication advance changes but does not make extinct those that came before it. 3) The pace of communication innovations has accelerated. 3. Timeline of media development (pp. 79-80) Reference 系统动力学（System Dynamics）是一门分析研究信息反馈系统的学科，也是一门认识系统问题和解决 系统问题交叉的综合性的新学科。它是系统科学和管理科学中的一个分支，它也是一门沟通自然科学和社 会科学等领域的横向学科。 混沌理论(Edward Lorenz 和Poincare)是一项通过研究复杂的动力系统，揭示表面无序行为所蕴藏的有序性（非混沌状态）的技术。20世纪60年代，美国麻省理工学院的气象学家Edward Lorenz在计算机上模 拟气象类型，当他把一个中间值提高精度再送回模型中去时，惊奇地发现，本来很小的差异，竟然完全改 变了模型结果。这一偶然发现，就是著名的 ―蝴蝶效应‖-- —即便很少的变化，都能造成结果的巨大不同，这是混沌理论的经典例子—--香港的一只蝴蝶轻轻振动一下翅膀，就有可能在美国的德克萨斯州引发一场 龙卷风。 社会动力学认为人力、畜力和机器力是社会生产方式革命的出发点，推动社会生产、阶级斗争和社会 发展变革的原动力。 Homework 1. Suggested Activities and Extended Materials in these two chapters 2. Preview Chapters 9 & 10 3. Translation: Textbook at page 70 19 Lecture Week 7 Objectives and Tasks 1. New technology 2. Part of Chapter Ten Media and Learning Chapter Nine New Technology Key PointMultimedia Technology; Computer-Mediated Communication Difficult PointVirtual Reality; Artificial Intelligence 1. Multimedia technology (pp. 84-85) What is multimedia? ----referring to a number of diverse technologies that allow visual and audio media to be combined in new ways for the purpose of communicating and also referring to a number of dedicated media appliances, such as digital video recorders, interactive television, MP3 players advanced wireless devices and public video displays. Multimedia includes: 1) CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read-Only Memory) 2) DVD (Digital Video Disk) 3) DVRs (Digital Video Recorders) 4) MPC (Multimedia Personal Computers) 2. Computer-mediated communication (CMC) (pp. 85-86)计算机媒介沟通 What’s the function of CMC? CMC is an important and widely-used tool and used as a method for communication within professional and social groups What are the forms used in CMC? , on internet, it includes: 1) Electronic mail (e-mail) 2) Computer conferences 3) Online databases 在线数据库 4) Real-time computer conferencing 实时计算机会议 5) Network Information Retrieval (NIR) 网络信息检索 6) CMC forums 计算机媒介沟通论坛 , In Business: 1) project management 2) collaborative composition of reports 3) task scheduling and tracking 4) product and customer support 20 5) administrative tracking 6) group decision support , in Technical communication instruction 技术通信教学 3. Virtual reality (pp. 86-87) 虚拟现实/临境技术 1) Definition: Virtual Reality, Artificial Reality or Cyberspace is a special form of computer simulation, a computer simulated environment. With the use of special interfaces, a user can ―travel‖ through a computer-generated world and interact with objects in it.(见参考 资料) 2) Interfaces 介面/接口装置 VR interfaces include: ａ) The joystick b) The keyboard c) The Data Glove 数据手套 (虚拟手控器) d) The Eyephones Head Mounted Display (头盔显示器(第一种HMD称为“Eyephones”。见参考资料) 3) Characteristics and research 4. Artificial Intelligence (p. 88) 人工智能 1) Definition: A. I. is the science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs. 2) Two classes of A. I. a) Strong A. I. b) Weak A. I. 3) Branches of A. I. a) Neural Networks 神经网络 b) Natural Language Processing 自然语言处理 c) Robotics 机器人学 d) Game Playing 游戏 e) Expert system 专家系统 5. Jini technology (pp. 88-89) 1) Definition: Jini technology is an open architecture that enables Java developers to build distributed systems that are highly adaptive to change. 2) Essence: It is a set of specifications that describe how to build adaptive distributed systems that run on the Java platform. 3) Dynamic networking 6. Bluetooth (pp. 89-90) 1) Essence: an industrial specification for wireless personal area networks (PANs). 2) VOIP: Voice over Internet Protocol, also called VoIP, IP Telephony, Internet telephony, Broadband telephony, Broadband Phone and Voice over Broadband is the routing of voice conversations over the Internet or through any other IP-based network 21 Chapter Ten Media and Learning Key PointThe Medium is the Message ; Media Research Difficult PointThe No Signification Difference Phenomenon 1. The medium is the message (pp. 95-96) 1) Marshall McLuhan‘s prophecy during the 1960s a) The global village (P95 Para. 3 L2) He suggested the term global village to refer to the new form of social organization that would inevitably emerge as instantaneous, electronic media tied the entire world into one great social, political, and cultural system. b) The rise of the Cable News Network (P96 Para. 5 L 3) He seemed to foretell the rise of the Cable News Network with its ability to seemingly make us eyewitnesses to history as it‘s made on the battlefield or at the barricade. c) Personal computers and the Internet (P 96 Para.5 L 5-6) He seemed to envision a time when personal computers would be everywhere and the Internet would give everyone instant access to immense stores of information. 2) McLuhan‘s view on media a) The medium is the message (and the massage, new forms of media). New forms of message transform our experience of ourselves and our society, and this influence is ultimately more important than the content that is transmitted in its specific messages. (P95 Para 2 L3-6) b) Media are the extensions of man and quite literally extend sight, hearing, and touch through time and space. (P95 Para.4 L 1-2) 2. Media research (p. 96) 1) Media a) Media refers to a class of instructional resources and represents all aspects of the mediation of instruction through the agency of reproducible events. b) Media can be defined by its technology, symbol systems and processing capabilities. 2) Three objectives of media research a) Obtain knowledge about the educational or instructional effectiveness of a chosen medium; b) Increase understanding of how media and technology function and what psychological effects they have on a learner; and c) Improve the practice of education through the provision and evaluation of better materials, media, procedures and technologies. 3) Schramm‘s view on the relationship between media and learning While all media can teach very effectively, learning seems to be affected more by what is delivered than by the delivery system (1977) 22 Reference 虚拟现实Virtual Reality一词是美国VPL Research公司的创始人Jaron Lanier在1989年创造的词汇，意指“计算机产生的三维交互环境，在使用中，用户是„投入?到这个环境中去的”。根据他创造这个名词的意思，VR的一种定义是：VR就是让用户在人工合成的环境里获得“进入角色”的体验。这涉及到三维立体显示跟踪头盔，还包括立体声耳机、数据手套以及数据衣等。甚至有人说，VR是任何非真实的、但假冒的非常像的计算机系统。 头盔显示器HMD（Head—Mounted Display）是专门为用户提供虚拟现实中景物的彩色立体显示器。通常固定在用户的头部，用两个LCD或CRT显示器分别向两只眼睛显示图像。这两个显示屏中的图像分 别由计算机驱动，屏上的两幅图像存在着细小的差别，类似于―双眼视差‖。 人工智能是研究、开发用于模拟、延伸和扩展人的智能的理论、方法、技术及应用系统的一门新的技 术科学。 人工智能是计算机科学的一个分支，它企图了解智能的实质，并生产出一种新的能以人类智能相 似的方式作出反应的智能机器，该领域的研究包括机器人、语言识别、图像识别、自然语言处理和专家系 统等。“人工智能”一词最初是在1956 年Dartmouth学会上提出的。 强人工智能观点认为有可能制造出真正能推理（Reasoning）和解决问题（Problem solving）的智能机器，并且，这样的机器能将被认为是有知觉的，有自我意识的。强人工智能可以有两类： 类人的人工智能，即机器的思考和推理就像人的思维一样。 非类人的人工智能，即机器产生了和人完全不一样的知觉和意识，使用和人完全不一样的推理方式。 弱人工智能观点认为不可能制造出能真正地推理（Reasoning）和解决问题（Problem solving）的智能机器，这些机器只不过看起来像是智能的，但是并不真正拥有智能，也不会有自主意识。 Homework 1. Suggested Activities and Extended Materials in these two chapter 2. Preview Chapter 10 (the rest) Lecture Week 8 Objectives and Tasks 1. Comment on homework 2. The rest of Chapter Ten Media and Learning Comment on Homework (Tentative) Chapter 10 Media and Learning (Continued) 3. The great media debate (pp. 97-98) 23 Argument: media and learning 1) Origin of the debate a) Schramm, as cited by Salomon, states that while all media can teach very effectively, ―learning seems to be affected more by what is delivered than by the delivery system.‖ b) After reviewing research studies from 1912 to the early 1980s, Clark concludes that instructional designers gain no learning benefits from employing a specific medium to deliver instruction. 2) Robert Kozma believes that Clark‘s view of media as ―delivery trucks‖ creates a schism between medium and method.‖ 4. The no significant difference phenomenon (p. 98) After reviewing 355 studies on distance education produced from 1928 to 1998, Russell concludes, ―There is nothing inherent in the technology that elicits improvements in learning,‖ although ―the process of redesigning a course to adapt the content to the technology‖ can improve the course and improve the outcomes. In other words, learning is not caused by the technology, but by the instructional method ―embedded in the media‖(Clark, 1994, P.22) Homework 1. Suggested Activities and Extended Materials in this chapter 2. Preview Chapters 11 & 12 3. Summary writing (Textbook PP 219-220 Discussion) Lecture Week 9 Objectives and Tasks 1. Instructional design and instructional system design 2. Part of Chapter Twelve: Models of Instructional Design Chapter Eleven Instructional Design and Instructional System Design Key PointBasic Principles of ID Difficult PointInstructional System Design 1. What‘s instructional design? (p. 107) Reclaiming instructional design (p. 107) a) Instructional science is concerned with the discovery of the natural principles 24 involved in instructional strategies; and instructional design is the use of these scientific principles to invent instructional design procedures and tools. b) Instructional design is a technology for the development of learning experiences and environments which promote the acquisition of specific knowledge and skill by students. c) Instructional design is a technology which incorporates known and verified learning strategies into instructional experiences which make the acquisition of knowledge and skill more efficient, effective, and appealing. d) While instruction takes place in a larger organizational context, the technology of instructional design is concerned only with the development of learning experiences and environments, not with the broader concerns of systemic change, organizational behavior, performance support, and other human resource problems. e) Instruction involves directing students to appropriate learning activities, guiding students to appropriate knowledge, helping students rehearse, encode, and process information, monitoring student performance, and providing feedback as to the appropriateness of the students‘ learning activities and practice performance. Instructional design is the technology of creating learning experiences and learning environments which promote these instructional activities. Definitions of instructional design (p. 108) Instructional design is interpreted broadly and includes a collection of activities to plan, implement, evaluate, and manage events and environments that are intended to facilitate learning and performance. It encompasses a set of interdependent and complex activities including situation assessment and problem identification, analysis and design, development and production, evaluation, and management and maintenance of learning process and the ID effort. Instructional Design as a process Instructional Design as a discipline Instructional Design as a science Instructional Design as reality 2. Basic principles of instructional design (p. 109) 1) Four phases of learning (1) activation of prior experience, (激活以前的经验） (2) demonstration of skills, （演示技巧） (3) application of skills, and （应用技巧） (4) integration of these skills into real-world activities. （整合技巧到真实世界的活动中） 2) First Principles of Instruction Diagram (p. 109) 25 Three principles that can dramatically improve instructions. 1. Demonstration not just Presentation 2. Application not just Remember 3. Real problem not just Test items Demonstration: Show me! (not Tell me) , Consistency , Learner guidance , Relevant media (1)Consistency . 5 kinds of learning outcomes.(Almost all tasks include those learning outcomes.) Information-about Parts –of Kinds –of How –to What –happen Use portrayals not just information Examples and non-examples for kinds of –to (2)Guidance Show how portrayals are related to information (3)Relevant media ( 图表) and text Application (Let me!) Consistency Intrinsic(内在的) or corrective feedback Gradually Diminishing coaching Problem —centered 26 Corrective feedback Coaching on early problem Gradually withdraw prompting 3) Instructional design prescriptions based on first principles a) Learning is facilitated when learners are engaged in solving real-world problems. b) Learning is facilitated when existing knowledge is activated as a foundation for new knowledge. c) Learning is facilitated when new knowledge is demonstrated to the learner. d) Learning is facilitated when new knowledge is applied by the learner. e) Learning is facilitated when new knowledge is integrated into the learner‘s world. （1）当学习者介入到解决现实生活中的问题时，才能促进学学习 （2）当激活已有的知识且作为新学习的基础时，才能促进学习 （3）当向学习者展示新知识时，才能促进学习。 （4）当学习者具体应用新知识时，才能促进学习。 （5）当新知识整合到学习者实际生活中时，才能促进学习。 3. Instructional system design (p. 109) 1) An instructional system may be defined as an arrangement of resources and procedures used to promote learning. Instructional systems have a variety of particular forms and occur in many of our instructions. 2) Instructional system design is the systematic process of planning instructional systems, and instructional development is the process of implementing the plans. Together, these two functions are components of what is referred to as instructional technology. 3) Three ―anchor points‖ of instruction a) Performance objectives b) Materials c) Evaluation instruments 4) Key steps in lesson planning a) Classifying the lesson objectives by learning type b) Listing the needed instructional events c) Choosing a medium of instruction capable of providing those events d) Incorporating appropriate conditions of learning into the prescriptions indicating how each event will be accomplished by the lesson 5) Organized procedure of Instructional System Design (ISD) a) Analyzing – defining what is to be learned 27 b) Designing – specifying how it is to be learned c) Developing – authoring and producing the instructional materials d) Implementing – actually using the materials and strategies in context e) Evaluating – determining the adequacy of the instruction 4. Characteristics of Instructional Design (pp. 110-111) 1) Instructional design is learner-centered. 2) Instructional design is goal-oriented. 3) Instructional design focuses on real-world performance. 4) Instructional design focuses on outcomes that can be measured in a reliable and valid way. 5) Instructional design is empirical. 6) Instructional design typically is a team effort. Chapter Twelve Models of Instructional Design Key PointID Models and Their Basic Features Difficult PointThe First and Second Generation Instructional Design 1. ID models and their basic features (pp. 117-118) Why Use ID? Design teams representing various fields of expertise (producers, instructors, editors, etc.) use ID models to: , Speed up the process: Time is money, especially when you have a team of three to four people working on the same project. The design steps save time by focusing the team and serving as the foundation for project development and a roadmap through the process. , Assist in communication: Team members need to share expertise, intent, calendars, and so forth. Instructors need to clarify their goals, objectives, content, and evaluation plans for producers and describe the level of audience expertise and their physical setting (equipment, software, support). Producers need to focus on the identified audience and objectives and suggest technology options. They need to include instructors in choosing appropriate technology and involve them in script writing, editing, computer course layout, etc. , Cover all phases of good instructional design: Insure that the elements of instruction are all consciously addressed and all the pieces relate to and support each other. Insure that the design is complete and packaged to be transmitted to the clientele prior to instruction. ID Models…Not Just for Teams 1) ID models can be used in many settings and to varying degrees. a) An ID model speeds up the course planning process, helps internal communication, and insures that no phase of instructional design will be forgotten or shortchanged. 28 b) An ID model can be used to evaluate existing instruction. c) An ID model can also be a good tool for general planning. In Conclusion Instructional design models can help both individuals and design teams work through the process of planning instruction. 2) Basic features a) Needs assessment b) Goal and objective identification c) Audience and setting analysis d) Content and delivery development e) Evaluation and redesign Reference David.Merril梅瑞尔等人1996年在《教育技术》（Educational Technology）杂志上发表了《教学设 计：回归科学》（Reclaiming the Discipline of Instructional Design）一文，阐述了他们对的一些基本见解，可以认为是实证主义研究范式对教学设计研究所作的系统。首先，梅瑞尔把教学界定为一门 科学，把教学设计界定为一种建立于教学科学基础之上的技术。教学设计成为教学科学知识系统化应用的过程。 其次，梅瑞尔认为教学设计是一个科学学科，其拥有一整套专门假定。教学设计作为一门科学学科必须建立于 科学原理的基础之上。 First principles of instruction are design-oriented rather than learning-oriented. They relate to creating learning environments and products rather than describing how learners acquire knowledge and skill from these environments or products. 1. ：展示学习信息是如何与已有知识相联系的，激活已有经验。 2. ：当向学习者“展示”新知识，而不只是简单的“告知”。目前在小学教学还会用到“展示”，而在 中学和中学以上的教学中则仅仅是“告知”。 3. ：要让学生参与实践。及时运用所学知识是非常重要的。 4. ：要将新知识整合到学习者实际生活中去。知识不应该止于课堂，而要在现实生活中去运用。 5. 以为中心：5个原则的之首是“教学应以问题为中心”。当学习者介入到解决现实生活中的问题时， 才能促进学学习。这些问题应该是真实的问题，而不只是一些用来测试的项目。 , 展示不只是呈现； , 运用不只是记忆； , 真实问题不只是测试的项目。 Homework 1. Suggested Activities and Extended Materials in these two chapters 2. Preview Chapter 12 (the rest) 29 Lecture Week 10 Objectives and Tasks 1. Comment on homework 2. The rest of Chapter Twelve Models of Instructional Design Comment on Homework (Tentative) Chapter 12 Models of Instructional Design (Continued) 2. A Taxonomy of ID models (p. 118) 1) Classroom orientation ID models 2) Product Orientation ID models a) Assumption that an instructional product is needed b) Assumption that something needs to be produced, rather than selected or modified from existing materials c) Considerable emphasis is placed on tryout and revision d) Assumption that the product must be usable by a variety of managers of instruction 3) System Orientation ID models 3. An introduction to instructional design models (pp. 119-124) 1) The Gerlach and Ely Design Model (p. 119) emphasizes the simultaneous identification of content and objectives prior to assessing any student behavior. (A novice model and an expert model) 2) The Kemp Model (p. 120) is circular and the elements are not connected to one another. It permits the designer to examine all aspects of the instruction at the same time, thus allowing him/her to see the effects of changes in a particular area. 3) The Dick and Carey Model (p. 121) is one of the most popular instructional models, a systematic method designing instruction noting that every component is crucial to successful student learning. 4) The ADDIE Model (p. 122) is a generic and simplified instructional system design (ISD) model. ADDIE is short for Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate. 5) The ASSURE Model (pp. 122-124), a procedural guide for planning and conducting instruction that incorporates media, assumes that training or instruction is required. It includes the following steps (ASSURE is short for the steps): a) Analyze learners b) State objectives c) Select methods, media, and materials 30 d) Utilize media and materials e) Require learner participation f) Evaluate and revise 4. The first and second generation instructional design 1) Limitations of the first generation Instruction Design (ID1) a) ID1 content analysis does not use integrated wholes which are essential for understanding complex and dynamic phenomena. b) ID1 has limited prescriptions for knowledge acquisition. c) ID1 has limited prescriptions for course organization. d) ID1 theories are essentially closed systems. e) ID1 fails to integrate the phases of instructional development. f) ID1 teaches pieces but not integrated wholes. g) ID1 instruction is often passive rather than interactive. h) Every ID1 presentation must be constructed from small components. i) ID1 is labor intensive. 2) The second generation Instructional design (ID2) will build on the foundation of ID1, but will address the shortcomings noted above. Specifically, ID2 will a) Be capable of analyzing, representing, and guiding instruction to teach integrated sets of knowledge and skills. b) Be capable of producing pedagogic prescriptions for the selection of interactive instructional strategies and the selection and sequencing of instructional transaction sets. c) Be an open system, be able to incorporate new knowledge about teaching and learning and to apply these in the design process. d) Integrate the phases of instructional development. 3) ID2 will comprise the following components: a) A theoretical base that organizes knowledge about instructional design and defines a methodology for performing instructional design. b) A knowledge base for representing domain knowledge for the purposes of making instructional decisions. c) A series of intelligent computer-based design tools for knowledge acquisition/analysis, strategy analysis and transaction generation/configuration. d) A collection of mini-experts, each contributing a small knowledge base relevant to a particular instructional design decision or a set of such decisions. e) A library of instructional transactions for the delivery of instruction, and the capacity to add new or existing transactions to the library. f) An on-line intelligent advisor program that dynamically customizes the instruction during delivery, based on a mixed-initiative dialog with the student. Reference 第一代教学设计(ID1)的代表性模型——―肯普模型‖ 31 在教学设计过程中应强调四个基本要素，需着重解决三个主要问题，要适当安排十个教学环节。 ? 四个基本要素：是指教学目标、学习者特征、教学资源和教学评价。肯普认为，任何教学设计过程 都离不开这四个基本要素，由它们即可构成整个教学设计模型的总体框架。 ? 三个主要问题：肯普还认为，任何教学设计都是为了解决以下三个主要问题： 学生必须学习到什么(确定教学目标)； 为达到预期的目标应如何进行教学(即根据教学目标的分析确定教学内容和教学资源，根据学习者 特征分析确定教学起点，并在此基础上确定教学策略、教学方法)； 检查和评定预期的教学效果(进行教学评价)。 ? 十个教学环节：是指：?确定学习需要和学习目的，为此应先了解教学条件(包括优先条件和限制条件)；?选择课题与任务；?分析学习者特征；?分析学科内容；?阐明教学目标；?实施教学活动；? 利用教学资源；?提供辅助性服务；?进行教学评价；?预测学生的准备情况。 Homework 1. Suggested Activities and Extended Materials in this chapter 2. Preview Chapters 13 & 14 Lecture Week 11 Objectives and Tasks 1. Automating instructional design 2. The overview of ICT 32 Chapter Thirteen Automating Instructional Design Key PointWhat‘s AID? Difficult PointPurpose of Automated Instructional Design Tools 1. Purpose of automated instructional design tools (p. 130) 1) Automated instructional design (AID) tools assist instructional designers and others in creating instructional products to improve learning. 2) AID systems aid in the production of courseware, or in the development of computer-based instruction (CBI). 2. What‘s AID? (pp. 130-131) 1) Definition: attempt to automate aspects of ID 2) Key lessons in the process of attempting to automate ID a) Strong systems work only in narrow and well-defined domains. b) Knowledge management systems are by nature weak systems and have a definite place in ID. c) The value of knowledge objects and reuse is likely to be realized only when humans are kept involved and systems kept open. d) We should not discourage or denigrate attempts to automate more ID processes – we always learn something in the process. e) The temptation will be to base strong automated support for ID on knowledge objects and metatagging.(元采编) f) Human involvement in the ID process will still be necessary and the real value of reusability and knowledge management in support of ID will be realized only if humans are involved in the process. 3. Types of AID tools identified by Kasowitz (1998) (pp. 131-133) 1) Advisory/critiquing ID systems introduced (p. 131) 2) Expert ID system (p. 132) a) Instructional Design Environment (IDE) b) ID expert c) IDioM 3) Information management ID system 4) EPSSs (Electronic Performance Support Systems) for ID 5) ID authoring tools Comprehension questions: a) What‘s the use of ID authoring tools? ----- They are used to enable instructors and instructional developers to create computer and Web-based learning environments. b) What are some authoring tools mentioned in the text? ----- BlackBoard; Learning Space; TopClass, and WebCT 33 Chapter Fourteen The Overview of ICT Key PointThe Effect of ICT in Education Difficult PointWhat is Information Literacy? 1. The Information Age and information literacy (pp. 143-144) 1) The Information Age accompanied with the highest hopes (and dreams) for the future 2) Dreams dependent on huge investments in technology 3) The federal government‘s unprecedented promise for the Information Highway 4) The American Library Association Presidential Committee on Information Literacy moved in its report to a) Explain the enormous impact of the information explosion on all people; b) Emphasize repeatedly the need for all people to become information literate; and c) Stress that this nation‘s economic independence and quality of life were becoming increasingly dependent on all of its citizens becoming lifelong learners. 2. Four goals set by President Clinton for technology in schools (p. 144) 1) All teachers in the nation ill have the training and support they need to help students learn using computers and the information superhighway; 2) All teachers and students will have modern multimedia computers in their classrooms; 3) Every classroom will be connected to the information superhighway; and 4) Effective software and on-line learning resources will be an integral part of every school‘s curriculum. 3. The effect of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) in education (p. 145) 1) Ubiquitous ICT( 无处不在的信息与传播技术) 2) Its ever-growing conspicuous presence in educational institutions 3) ICT becoming a ―critical filter‖ 4) Much cause for optimism 4. What is information literacy (pp. 145-146) 1) In its broadest sense, information literacy refers to the ability to access and use a variety of information sources to solve an information need. It entails finding, evaluating, using, and subsequently communicating knowledge and involves a complex set of skills that allow us to express, explore, question, and understand the flow of ideas among individuals and groups in a vastly changing technological environment. 2) The American Library Association‘s definition (p. 146) 3) A Basic objective of education is for each student to learn how to identify needed information, locate and organize it, and present it in a clear and persuasive manner. 34 Reference “教学设计自动化”（Automated Instructional Design或Automating Instructional Design，简称AID）是 指有效利用计算机技术，为教学设计人员和其他教学产品开发人员在教学设计和教学产品开发过程中提供 辅助、指导、咨询、帮助或决策的过程。“教学设计自动化”更为贴切的提法应该是“计算机辅助的教学设 计”（Computer Aided Instructional Design，简称CAID）。 "Information Literacy is the ability to identify, retrieve, evaluate, and use information that is appropriate to a need. Students who develop information literacy skills will be more successful in their studies and their daily lives. They will find that these skills are an essential element in becoming a lifelong learner." -- From Western Michigan University Libraries Information Literacy Site Homework 1. Suggested Activities and Extended Materials in these two chapters 2. Preview Chapters 15 & 16 3. Paper writing: Education Technology in China: Research and Practice (About 200 words) Lecture Week 12 Objectives and Tasks 1. Instructional design and instructional system design 2. Part of Chapter Sixteen The Study and Practice to Facilitate Learning with ICT Chapter Fifteen Introduction of ICT Curriculum Key PointHow to Teach ICT; How to Design ICT Difficult PointAn Evaluation Tool of ICT 1. Aims of ICT in education (pp. 150-151) 1) The utilitarian aims of ICT in education a) to help the learners become competent, confident, responsible and critical users of ICT who can make efficient, effective and creative use of basic software and hardware in their everyday activities; b) to assist the learners to become responsible, critical and reflective users of ICT who can evaluate the capabilities and limitations of the technology and of 35 social, technical, political, ethical, moral, educational, legal, economic, cultural and environmental issues associated with its use; c) to prepare the learners for the knowledge society by making them adaptable users of ICT who have the necessary openness and flexibility of mind to be able to adjust to future changes in the technology. 2) The social aims of ICT in education a) to encourage the learners to develop the appropriate social skills that are essential for cooperative and collaborative learning based on ICT; b) to empower ICT-disadvantaged learners by ensuring sufficient access for those learners who have little out-of-school opportunities to use the technology; c) to facilitate better communication between members of society, thereby promoting greater social understanding, respect and harmony; d) to ensure equity between all learners by providing appropriate qualitative and quantitative opportunities to overcome social, economic and learning disadvantages. 2. How to teach ICT (p. 151) 1) Teachers have to teach students how to use the technology or software before the latter can make effective use of ICT; 2) Teachers have to identify clearly what skills the pupils needed in order to benefit from using the computers in the areas of literacy and numeracy they had targeted; and 3) Teachers have to ensure that the pupils‘ skills were adequate so that pupils could concentrate on the specific subject objectives. 3. How to design ICT (13 points on p. 152) 4. An evaluation tool of ICT – the electronic portfolio Reference Vocabulary: 1．Utilitarian adj. & n. helpful, practical, realistic; “实利的、功利主义的, 实用主义的”；“功利主义者；实用主义者”。 2．Effective 与 efficient efficient是效率高的，有能力的 effective是有效的，起作用的 这两个形容词虽然都可译成“有效的”，但含义有所不同。 effective指某物有一种显著的，预期的效果或是取得了预期的效果。如： Her efforts to improve the school have been very effective. 他为改善学校而做出的努力是卓有成效的。 an effective medicine for hair loss 一种治疗脱发的有效药 He has become an effective assistant. 他已成为一名得力的助手。 efficient主要指某人办事效率高，不浪费时间和精力等，也可指机械设备“有效率的”。如： A good leader should be both competent and efficient. 一名好领导应该精明能干，办事效率高。 36 Our efficient new machines are much cheaper to run. 我们所买的高效机器运转消耗要小得多。 increase efficiency of production and diminish cost of output 提高生产效率，降低产品成本 3. cooperative –working together for a common purpose （为了共同的目标而在一起工作）合作 的； 协力的 collaborative -- working together to produce sth. 合作完成一项工作 Chapter Sixteen The Study and Practice to Facilitate Learning with ICT Key PointThe Cycles of Technology Integration Difficult PointThe Benefits of Blending Learning 1. The cycles of technology integration (p. 156) 1) Planning, investigation and experimentation 2) Initial capital investment 3) Readjustment 4) The emergence of New York and organizational models 2. The market power of E-learning (p. 157) Homework 1. Suggested Activities and Extended Materials in these two chapters 2. Preview Chapter 16 (the rest) and 17 Lecture Week 13 Objectives and Tasks 1. Chapter Sixteen The Study and Practice to Facilitate Learning with ICT(continued) 2. Definitions and History of Distance Education Chapter 16 The Study and Practice to Facilitate Learning with ICT (Continued) 3. The critical attributes of WebQuest (p. 158) 1) Rationed use of WebQuest 2) The least components of WebQuest a) An introduction that sets the stage and provides some background information. 37 b) A task that is doable and interesting. c) A set of information sources needed to complete the task. d) A description of the process the learners should go through in accomplishing the task. e) Some guidance on how to organize the information acquired. f) A conclusion that brings closure to the quest, reminds the learners about what they've learned, and perhaps encourages them to extend the experience into other domains.（结论） 4. The benefits of blending learning (pp. 158-159) 1) Extending the reach 2) Optimizing development cost and time Reference WebQuest——主题导引式网络探究学习活动 (一种新的网络网学习模式) Webquest是美国加州大学圣地亚哥分校（University of California, San Diego），圣地亚哥州立 大学教育技术系的伯尼?道奇（Bernie Dodge）和汤姆?马奇（Tom March）于1995年创建的一种课程计划.在这种课程计划中,呈现给学生的是一个特定的假想情景或者一项任务,通常是一个需要解决的问题或者一个需要完成的项目,课程计划中为学生提供了一些因特网资源,并要求他们通过对信息的分析和综合来得出创造性的解决.由于该课程计划和万维网密切相关,所以他们将其命为"Webquest","Web"是"网络" 的意思,"Quest"是"寻求"的意思,也可以翻译成"网络专题探究".Webquest比一节课的教案或者单元教案复杂一些,它通过向学生提问一些本质性问题、提供进一步探索的机会,让孩子们在动手做的过程中应用他们的知识,从而努力让孩子们在较高的水平上思考. 短期WebQuest为1-3周,长期WebQuest为1个月. What is Blending Learning？ “混合学习”（Blending Learning） 就是把传统学习方式的优势和数字化或网络化学习（e-learning） 的优势结合起来。也就是说，既要发挥教师的引导、启发、监控教学过程的主导作用，又要充分发挥体现 学生作为学习主体的主动性、积极性和创造性。只有把这两者结合起来，使两者的优势互补，才能获得最 佳的学习效果。 Chapter Seventeen Definitions and History of Distance Education 1. Definitions of distance education according to AECT (pp. 165-166) 1) Definition: Institution-based formal education where the learning group is separated, and where interactive telecommunications systems are used to connect learners, resources, and instructors. 2) Four main components a) Distance education institutionally based. b) Separation of teacher and student c) Interactive telecommunications (electronic media) d) Connected learners, resources and instructors 2. History of distance education (pp. 166-167) 1) 1700s: Print-based correspondence study began in the U. S. 2) 1780s: Correspondence courses gained international popularity. 38 3) Early 1900s: Universities and private schools were offering correspondence courses to elementary, secondary, higher education and vocationally oriented learners. 4) Middle of the 20th century: Instructional radio and television became popular. 5) 1970s: Professionally designed and produced television series introduced adult learners to videotape programs focused on basic skills improvement, English as a second language, and GED (General Educational Development Testing, U. S. A. 普 通教育发展测验) preparation. Athabasca University was established in Canada for the same purposes. 6) 1980s: Cable TV video teleconferencing became widely available and the possibility of some two-way distance learning programs evolved as interactive communications became feasible. 7) 1990s: Vast arrays of two-way distance learning programs emerged as an assortment of hardware and communication tools became available. 8) 1996: The Open University of U. K. was established, combining distance education programs using print and non-print resources. The evolution of distance learning (P167) (See ―Reference‖) 3. What is distance education (pp. 167-168) 1) Willis‘ definition (1993) Distance education is a form of education where the learner is in some way separated from the instructor. It can take many shapes and forms, and can provide learners with the ability to learn ―anytime, anyplace and at any pace. At its most basic level, distance education takes place when a teacher and student(s) are separated by physical distance, and technology is used to bridge the instructional gap.‖ 2) Moore and Kearsley‘s definition (1996) Distance education is planned learning that normally occurs in a different place from teaching and as a result requires special techniques of course design, special instructional techniques, special methods of communication by electronic and other technology, as well as special organizational and administrative arrangements. 3) Desmond Keegan‘s definition (in Saba, 1997) 4) Cantelon‘s definition (1995) 4. Open learning (p. 168) 1) Meanings a) Greater access to those previously denied access to education. b) Greater flexibility to the individual learner in the form of autonomous self directed learning. c) Less restriction on the formalities of education. And d) A laissez-faire attitude by the providers of education for the recipients of that education. 2) Goals defined by Thorpe (1988) a) To increase the rate of participation in education and training, especially among groups with low rates of participation to date. And b) To improve the quality and extent of learning achieved by those who do 39 participate. Reference GED(General Educational Development Tests “普通教育发展测验”(同等学力考试) 在美国中学一级的考试中有一种是比较特殊的，即“普通教育发展测验”(General Educational Development Tests，简称GED)。GED测的是高中水平的学力，但实际上并不是为在校学生设置 的，原则上它是一种成人考试，只有18岁以上并已离开高中的成人才有资格报考。GED共考5门，包括阅读、写作、数学、社会科学及自然科学，考生通过5门考试后即可获得高中同等学 力的文凭。在许多州里这种通过GED得到的证书与一般的高中毕业证书没有不同。 Athabasca University阿萨贝斯卡大学（公立）由阿尔伯塔省政府于1970年创建，是加拿大杰出的远程和网上教育大学，能提供证书、毕业证、三或四年的学士学位以及硕士学位。 远程教育的变革 国际远程教育界普遍接受的三代信息技术和三代远程教育理论与远程学习中的交互理论有密 切的关系。三代理论的倡导者加里森(Garrison，1985)和尼珀(Nipper，1989)，尤其是贝茨(Bates，1991)及我国学者丁兴富反复强调前两代信息技术和远程教育与第三代信息技术和远程教育的一个 根本差异就在于其交互性：前两代远程教育以单向发送通信(发送函授教材和发送广播电视教学节 目)为主要特征，双向交互(邮件、电话、面授等)极为有限；而第三代远程教育则以基于网络的双 向交互通信为主要特征，课程材料既有单向发送的各类光盘和数字电视广播等，也有具有丰富人机 交互的网页课程材料和流媒体视频点播等，更有多种多样的异步(非实时)和同步(实时)双向交互通信。 早些年被人们普遍接受的是伽里森（Garrison，1985）、尼珀（Nipper，1989）和贝茨（Bates，1991）的三代远程教育的理论。该理论根据学习者和教师之间不同的交流方式，将远程教育分为三 代：第一代是函授，第二代是函授以及广播电视、录像和录音，第三代则是建立在电子通讯和计算 机的技术之上的。这样的划分虽然把握了各种交流方式的总体特征，但是由于当时互联网技术还未 得到广泛的应用，属于非主流技术，他们对于互联网技术在远程教育中的作用的重要性和实现方式 的认识受到限制，因此把基于互联网技术的交流方式与其他电子通信手段如电视会议都一起归在第 三代远程教育中。 40 Homework 1. Suggested Activities and Extended Materials in this chapter 2. Preview Chapters 18 3. Get ready for a dictation in Week 15 Lecture Week 14 Objectives and Tasks 1. Comment on Homework 2. Theories of distance education Comment on Homework (Tentative) Chapter Eighteen Theories of Distance Education Key PointThe Industrial Model of Distance Education Difficult PointA Synthesis of Existing Theories 1. The industrial model of distance education (p. 172) 1) Otto Peters‘ industrial production model of distance education: A method of imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes which is rationalized by the application of division of labor and organizational principles as well as by the extensive use of technical media, especially for the purpose of reproducing high quality teaching material which makes it possible to instruct great numbers of students at the same time wherever they live. 2) Peters‘ theory is an organizational theory and not a theory of teaching, nor of learning. It is an organizational model that talks about organizing the educational process to realize economies of scale. 3) This model places in clear contrast the need to choose between independence and interaction, generating a debate about the worth of each approach in implementing distance education, a debate that was rendered useless with the advent of computer-mediated communication. 2. European theory of independent study (p. 173) 1) Moore‘s theory examines two variables in educational programs: the amount of learner autonomy and the distance between teacher and student. 41 2) Distance education for Moore is composed of two elements: the provision for two-way communication (dialog) and the extent to which a program is responsive to the needs of the individual learner (structure). 3) The second part of Moore‘s theory deals with learner autonomy and distance educational programs are classified as ―autonomous‖ (learner-determined) or ―non-autonomous‖ (teacher-determined). 4) The degree of autonomy is gauged by answering the following three questions: a) Is the selection of learning objectives in the program the responsibility of the learner or the teacher (autonomy in setting objectives)? b) Is the selection and use of resource persons – of bodies and other mediated decision of the learner or the teacher (autonomy in methods of study)? c) Are the decisions about the method of evaluation and criteria to be used made by the learner or the teacher (autonomy in evaluation)? 3. The need for theory (pp. 174-175) 1) Moore‘s concern (1972) about the progress of distance education being hindered by lack of attention to what he called the ―macro factors‖. 2) Holmberg‘s call (1986, 1988) for theory 3) Keegan‘s confirmation of the need for a theory of distance education and his view of three groups of theories: theories of independence and autonomy, of industrialization of teaching, and of interaction and communication 4) Holmberg‘s view (1995) on theory: a systematic ordering of ideas about the phenomenon of a field of inquiry, and an over-arching logical structure of reasoned suppositions which can generate testable hypotheses. 4. A synthesis of existing theories (pp. 175-176) Perraton‘s theory of distance education is composed of elements from existing theories of communication and diffusion as well as philosophies of education, and expressed in the form of fourteen statements or hypotheses. 1) Five of them deal with the way in which distance teaching can be used to maximize education: a) You can use any medium to teach anything. b) Distance teaching can break the integuments of fixed staffing ratios that limit the expansion of education when teacher and student are in the same place at the same time. c) There are circumstances under which distance teaching can be cheaper than orthodox education, whether measured in terms of audience reached or of learning. d) The economies achievable by distance education are functions of the level of education, size of audience, choice of media, and sophistication of production. e) Distance teaching can reach audiences not reached by ordinary means. 2) Four address the need to increase dialog: a) It is possible to organize distance teaching in such a way that there is dialog. b) When a tutor meets distance students face-to-face, the tutor‘s role changes from that of communicator of information to facilitator of learning. c) Group discussion is an effective method of distance learning to bring relevant 42 information to the group. d) In most communities there are resources that can be used to support distance learning to its educational and economic advantage. 3) Another five deal with method: a) A multimedia program is likely to be more effective than one which relies on a single medium. b) A systems approach is helpful in planning distance education. c) Feedback is a necessary part of a distance learning system. d) To be effective, distance teaching materials should ensure that students undertake frequent and regular activities over and above reading, watching, or listening. e) In choosing between media, the key decision on which the rest depend concerns the use of face-to-face learning. Reference Homework 1. Suggested Activities and Extended Materials in these two chapters 2. Preview Chapter 19 3. Be ready for the dictation next week Lecture Week 15 Objectives and Tasks 1. Dictation of words and phrases, and/or transcription of acronyms 2. The platform of distance education Dictation (Tentative) 43 Chapter Nineteen The Platforms of Distance Education Key PointWebCT Difficult PointLearningSpace R5 1. WebCT (p.179) 1) What is WebCT? a) A company whose mission is to be the preferred partner of institutions that are creating total E-learning solutions, from getting started to scaling campus-wide. b) A platform whose Standard and Campus Editions are user-friendly, give faculty members the pedagogical flexibility to teach their own way, provide tools to enhance interaction between students and faculty, and offer the broadest selection of quality course material and well-designed content from all of the major college textbook publishers. c) The Campus Editions of WebCT also gives institutions a robust, scaleable product suitable for large-scale implementation across multiple servers as well as features for enhanced scaling and integration with campus portals and student information systems. d) The company also offers a wide range of services. 2) WebCT.com a) WebCT.com, the E-learning hub, offers centrally hosted services that can be customized to meet the needs of individual institutions or academically oriented communities. b) WebCT.com supports excellence in online teaching and learning with mentoring programs, resources, and access to experts and colleagues in many fields. 2. Leadership in E-learning (pp. 180-181) 1) Blackboard a) The headquarters of Blackboard Inc.: Washington D. C. b) Blackboard is one of the earliest pioneers in E-learning and remains an industry leader with solutions in use at more than 2,000 academic institutions. c) The World‘s leading hardware, software, and publishing companies have created products and content that interoperate seamlessly with the Blackboard Academic Suite. d) Each product in the Blackboard Academic Suite is a best-of-breed solution, made more powerful through a shared architecture, consistent interfaces, seamless file sharing, and robust administration features. 2) Components of the Blackboard Academic Suite a) The Blackboard Learning System, an industry-leading software application 44 used to power virtual learning environments, supplement classroom education, and as a platform for distance learning programs. b) The Blackboard Content System, an advanced knowledge-sharing application that uses an Internet file management engine to extend the reach of E-learning beyond individual classes. c) The Blackboard Portal System, a powerful mix of middleware and community-building tools that brings consistency and a common environment to the many disparate on- and off-campus Web-based services that develop naturally in and around a modern educational institution. 3) Learn and leverage a single solution 4) Better management, higher productivity 3. LearningSpace R5: Smoothing the rough edges (pp. 181-182) 1) LearningSpace is an E-learning platform developed by IBM (Lotus), which is based in Endicott, New York 2) Important features of LearningSpace R5: a) Automatic notifications and system-level E-mail b) Support for materials c) Domino import d) Improved user interface Reference Homework 1. Suggested Activities and Extended Materials in this chapter 2. Preview Chapters 20 & 21 Lecture Week 16 Objectives and Tasks 1. Institute and successful cases of distance education 2. An overview of instructional technology research 45 Chapter Twenty Institute and Successful Cases of Distance Education Key PointWhat Is the Commonwealth of Learning Difficult PointAn Overview of USQ 1. The Open University of Hong Kong (OUHK) (pp. 185-186) 1) History a) Open Learning Institute of Hong Kong (OLI) (1989) b) Open University of Hong Kong (OUHK) (Ho Man Tin, 1997) 2) Mission 3) Facilities and services 2. The Open University (United Kingdom) (1971) (pp. 186-187) The Open University was the world's first successful distance teaching university. Background information: Born in the 1960s, the 'White Heat of Technology' era, the Open University was founded on the belief that communications technology could bring high quality degree-level learning to people who had not had the opportunity to attend campus universities. The pioneering years: Professor Walter Perry was appointed as The Open University's first Vice-Chancellor. Preparations in 1969; The first student applications: 1970; Science at a distance The years of growth,: By 1980, student numbers grow to 70,000; The 1980s: growth and consolidation: The 1990s: management, languages and law 1) First enrollments in 1971 2) The largest university in UK, with over 200,000 students and customers 3) A university representing 22% of all part-time higher education students in UK 3. The Commonwealth of Learning (COL) (fully operational 1989) (pp. 187-188) 1) COL is an intergovernmental organization created by Commonwealth Heads of Government to encourage the development of open learning and distance education, through the fostering and sharing of knowledge, resources and technologies. 2) Headquartered in Vancouver, Canada, COL is the world‘s only intergovernmental organization dedicated solely to promoting and delivering distance education and open learning, and is the only official Commonwealth agency located outside Britain. 3) COL and its international network of partner organizations are mandated to be in the vanguard of technological change in education and training and help the 53 member nations of the Commonwealth. 4) The future, now 4. The University of Southern Queensland (USQ) (pp. 188-189) 46 1) Beginning as an Institute of Technology in 1967 and redesignated as a university from 1990 2) A well-resourced main campus in the city of Toowoomba and many regional support offices throughout Australia and in other countries 3) A dynamic, young university that offers award programs at undergraduate and postgraduate level by on-campus, off-campus or online study. Chapter Twenty-One An Overview of Instructional Technology Research Key PointQuantitative Research; Qualitative Research Difficult PointAction Research 1. Scientific methods (pp. 195-196) 1) Purpose of the scientific method: To make conclusive statements about studies with a minimum of bias 2) How the scientific method works a) To have some basis for conducting research (basis of observed phenomena) b) To form a hypothesis to explain some aspect of observations c) To test prediction (in the hypothesis) 2. Purposes of educational research (pp. 196-197) 1) Scientific research (―basic‖ or ―fundamental‖ research): To develop theory 2) Research and development (R & D, or ―applied research‖): To develop a product 3) Policy research (the newest type of research): To aid in decision-making by providing information and alternatives 4) Action research (―classroom‖ research): To improve practice and solve local problems or address local needs and goals 3. Two research paradigms (pp. 197-198) 1) Kuhn‘s view (1970) on paradigms a) No paradigm for research ever solves all the problems it defines, nor do two competing paradigms leave the same problems unsolved. b) The paradigm that guides our research necessarily delimits our problems, theoretical assumptions, and methodologies. c) In a developing science, numerous paradigms may vie for acceptability and dominance. 2) Paradigms used in instructional systems research a) Instructional system is such a developing science that it draws from the research and theory of several fields. b) It therefore also well reflects shifts in theoretical or research paradigms that those fields may undergo. c) New research paradigms are also finding their way into educational research, and many of them hold promise for research in instructional systems. 47 d) The field should embrace a wide variety of research paradigms and not yield to the dominance of any one. e) The traditional experimental paradigm plays an important role in our search for functional laws and cause-effect relationships and serves as a useful starting point. 4. Quantitative research (pp. 198-200) 1) Definition a) According to Huysamen (1997), ―descriptions of quantitative research typically discern a cycle of successive phases of hypothesis formulation, data collection, analysis and interpretation. Quantitative researchers are those who find themselves ―treat(ing) their objects of study as having an existence independent of themselves and without any intrinsic meaning‖ b) Using a deductive approach, quantitative research seeks to establish facts, make predictions, and test hypotheses that have already been stated. A large part of the data analysis of quantitative research is statistical, striving to show that the world can be looked at in terms of one reality; this reality, when isolated in context, can be measured and understood, a perspective known as positivism (Gay and Airasian, 1999) 2) Differing characteristics (quantitative versus qualitative research) a) Positivist in outlook/non-positivist perspective b) Work with numerical data/non-numerical data such as observations, interviews, and other more discursive sources of information c) Search for evidence which supports or does not support an existing hypothesis/allowance for the hypotheses to emerge from patterns of recurring events 3) Key features a) Stating both the hypothesis studied and the research procedures that will be implemented prior to conducting the study; b) Maintaining control over contextual factors that might interfere with the data collected; c) Using large enough samples of participants to provide statistically meaningful data, and d) Employing data analyses that rely on statistical procedures. 4) Quantitative research in sociology a) The social survey approach is one of the main methods of data collection which embodies the features of quantitative research. b) Experimental designs, in contrast with the social survey approach, constitute the main approach to data collection within the tradition of quantitative research in social psychology, in which there are at least two groups to which subjects have been randomly allocated: an experimental and a control group. 5. Qualitative research (pp. 200-201) 1) Variety of definitions and terms used and misused in the literature 2) Wolcott (1990) pointed out that ―the need to label our studies or identify ourselves as working within particular scholarly traditions is partly self-imposed, partly the 48 result of institutional requirements and academic posturing‖. He also reminded us that we should not fault a study incorrectly labeled, but consider its worth as determined by whether or not the report is ―thorough, informative, and insightful‖. 3) Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. 4) Naturalistic research helps to understand ―the persons involved, their behavior and perceptions, and the influence of the physical, social, and psychological environment or content on them‖. 5) A case study is a research method that attempts to address questions of how or why, within a real-life situation over which the researcher has little control. 6) Examples of qualitative research: ethnography, participant observation, phenomenology, grounded theory, critical inquiry. 6. Action research (pp. 201-202) 1) Definition: Deliberate, solution-oriented investigation that is group or personally owned and conducted, which is characterized by spiraling cycles of problem identification, systematic data collection, reflection, analysis, data-driven action taken, and, finally, problem redefinition. 2) Corey‘s definition (1953): The process through which practitioners study their own practice to solve their personal practical problems. 3) Very often action research is a collaborative activity where practitioners work together to help one another design and carry out investigations in their classrooms. 4) Teacher action research is, according to John Elliott (in Nixon, 1987), ―concerned with the everyday practical problems experienced by teachers, rather than the ?theoretical problems‘ defined by pure researchers within a discipline of knowledge‖. Reference Homework 1. Suggested Activities and Extended Materials in these two chapters 2. Preview Chapters 21 & 22 Lecture Week 17 Objectives and Tasks 1. An overview of instructional technology research (the rest) 2. A research report of Research on the Instructional Technology 49 Chapter 21 An Overview of Instructional Technology Research (Continued) Chapter Twenty-Two A research Report of Research on Instructional Technology Key PointConstruction of a Research Report Difficult PointConstruction of a Research Report 1. Title 2. Author‘s Name 3. Abstracts 4. Body 1) Introduction 2) Background 3) The Study 4) Results 5) Students‘ Comments 6) Discussion 5. References Reference Homework 1. Suggested Activities and Extended Materials in these two chapters 2. Preview Chapter 22 and Appendices, especially AECT Code of Ethics Lecture Week 18 Objectives and Tasks 1. A research report of Research on the Instructional Technology (the rest) 2. Appendices, especially AECT Code of Ethics 50 Chapter 22 A Research Report of Research on the Instructional Technology (Continued) AECT Code of Ethics Reference Homework 1. Suggested Activities and Extended Materials in this chapter 2. Be ready for the final exam 51