模样人和农夫的故事

模样人和农夫的故事 飞机上， 乌鸦对乘务员说:给爷来杯水～ 猪听后也学道:给爷也来杯水～ 乘务员把猪和乌鸦扔出机舱， 乌鸦笑着对猪说:傻了吧,爷会飞～ 点评:外界因素是一种约束条件，自身能力也是一种约束 条件。所以，别人能成功的事，未必自己就能成功。 一农户在杀鸡前的晚上喂鸡，不经意地说:快吃吧，这是你最后一顿～ 第二日，见鸡已躺倒并留遗书:爷已吃老鼠药，你们别想吃爷了，爷 他妈也不是好惹的。 点评:当对手知道了你的决定之后，就能做出对自己最有 利的决定。 ——纳什均衡理论 所以保密、信息安全很重要 囚徒困境 在博弈论中有一个经典--囚徒困境，非常耐人寻味。“囚徒困境”说的是两个囚犯的故事。这两个囚徒一起做坏事，结果被警察发现抓了起来，分别关在两个独立的不能互通信息的牢房里进行审讯。在这种情形下，两个囚犯都可以做出自己的选择:或者供出他的同伙(即与警察合作，从而背叛他的同伙)，或者保持沉默(也就是与他的同伙合作，而不是与警察合作)。这两个囚犯都知道，如果他俩都能保持沉默的话，就都会被释放，因为只要他们拒不承认，警方无法给他们定罪。但警方也明白这一点，所以他们就给了这两个囚犯一点儿刺激:如果他们中的一个人背叛，即告发他的同伙，那么他就可以被无罪释放，同时还可以得到一笔奖金。而他的同伙就会被按照最重的罪来判决，并且为了加重惩罚，还要对他施以罚款，作为对告发者的奖赏。当然，如果这两个囚犯互相背叛的话，两个人都会被按照最重的罪来判决，谁也不会得到奖赏。 那么，这两个囚犯该怎么办呢,是选择互相合作还是互相背叛,从表面上看，他们应该互相合作，保持沉默，因为这样他们俩都能得到最好的结果:自由。但他们不得不仔细考虑对方可能采取什么选择。A犯不是个傻子，他马上意识到，他根本无法相信他的同伙不会向警方提供对他不利的证据，然后带着一笔丰厚的奖赏出狱而去，让他独自坐牢。这种想法的诱惑力实在太大了。但他也意识到，他的同伙也不是傻子，也会这样来设想他。所以A犯的结论是，唯一理性的选择就是背叛同伙，把一切都告诉警方，因为如果他的同伙笨得只会保持沉默，那么他就会是那个带奖出狱的幸运者了。而如果他的同伙也根据这个逻辑向警方交代了，那么，A犯反正也得服刑，起码他不必在这之上再被罚款。所以其结果就是，这两个囚犯按照不顾一切的逻辑得到了最糟糕的报应:坐牢。 企业在信息化过程中需要与咨询企业、软件供应商打交道的。在与这些企业打交道的过程中，我们不可避免地也会遇到类似的两难境地，这个时候需要相互之间有足够的了解与信任，没有起码的信任做基础，切不可贸然合作。在对对方有了足够的信任之后，诚意也是必不可少的，如果没有诚意或者太过贪婪，就可能闹到双方都没有好处的糟糕情况，造成企业之间的双输。 of support and hanger. Cable hole plugging gaps should use qualified fireproof materials, block surface should have sufficient strength, surface appearance. When cables pass through the firewall, of lax structure of local fire safety clamps. Thermoplastics production, to comply with the process, no bubbles in the thermoplastics pipes, linear nose consistent with the core wire specifications, contact is good, no cracks, break. Tinned copper nose clean solder full exterior surface is smooth without burrs. Control cable Assembly should be fastened, dense, solid, clean, and beautiful. Secondary wiring the cable terminations should be arranged by the actual location of the device line cards, the wiring from the upper to the lower, from left to right in the order. Fixed to maintain consistent spacing between lines, flat, should be around the corner in the same location, same shape, to ensure that the wiring process neater and more elegant. 5 thermal process control measures for quality problems 5.1 control thermal duct system leakage measure to ensure that the use of electric door and actuator installation quality and equipment to the site to check its seal, acceptance, in order to fundamentally solve oil spill problems. Plant for local Panel after installation, in conjunction with the quality Department to check its overall quality, poor-quality parts replacement. Supply good quality of purchasing instrument and ovality of the guarantee instrument tubes as small as possible, selection of high quality, high precision sleeve connector. Instrument pipe welding, construction workers and technicians on every road, every instrument as well recorded and well identified in the instrument, welding welding following the end of each review, responsibility and prevention of welding, welding wrong. Requirements for welding personnel certified, and welding before welding training, select skills good sense to carry out construction, welding quality inspection and acceptance every day to ensure that the welding ... All unreleased material sampling, invited supervision engineers arrived at the scene, after confirmation by the supervising engineer, seal immediately sent authorized bodies in accordance with the requested test indicator test, according to the inspection report and approved by the supervising engineer to review and then transported for the construction. Amount of insulation materials shall 牧养人和农夫的故事——新经济学的理解交易可以使每个人的状况变好----N.格里高利.曼昆 1. 自给自足经济 很久以前，一个部落里村庄有两个人家，一个是牧牛人另一个是农夫。牧牛人生产牛肉，农夫生产土豆。给了更好的说明我们的问题我们给问题，我们可以进行一定的假设(经济学的很多问题的分析都在假设的基础之上，后面很多讨论的都是建立在经济学已有的假设之上)。假定他们每天都工作八个小时，用来生产牛肉和土豆。牧牛人和农夫现在还没有实行交换， 各自吃着自己生产的东西。在经过了N年之后，牧牛人和农夫都厌倦了土豆和牛肉(他们都爱吃土豆和牛肉----这就是消费者的偏好)，产生了想交换的念头。-----自给自足经济的格局由此被打破 2. 小农经济 简单的交换之后，大家都尝到了交换的甜头，随着社会的发展，牧牛人和农夫都可以生产对方的产品。牧牛人和农夫都可以生产牛肉和土豆。他们怎么样选择他们的生产配置呢。我们这样的假定 ，工作时间都是八小时，牧牛人生产一斤土豆的时间是30分钟，生产一斤牛肉的时间是40分钟，而农夫生产一斤土豆的时间是15分钟，生产一斤的时间是80分钟。那么他们的生产函数如下: 生产一斤所需的时间 8小时的产量 牛肉 土豆 牛肉 土豆 牧牛人 40 30 12 16 农夫 80 15 6 32 这样的一中状况使得农夫和牧牛人都有自己的优势(绝对优势)牧牛人更适合生产牛肉，农夫更适合生产土豆 ，这样以来导致了分工，牧牛人专业的生产牛肉，农夫专业的生产土豆。这样的状况维持了一段时间，双边的交换使得他们的生活更好。 由于牧牛人知识和技能提高，他生产土豆的效率提高，比农夫的更高，10分钟可以生产一斤的土豆 生产一斤所需的时间 8小时的产量 牛肉 土豆 牛肉 土豆 牧牛人 40 10 12 48 农夫 80 15 6 32 这样牧牛人就想，我的生产效率都比农夫高，我是否还需要选择同农夫进行贸易呢，牧牛人为此冥思苦想，怎么也找不到答案。 of support and hanger. Cable hole plugging gaps should use qualified fireproof materials, block surface should have sufficient strength, surface appearance. When cables pass through the firewall, of lax structure of local fire safety clamps. Thermoplastics production, to comply with the process, no bubbles in the thermoplastics pipes, linear nose consistent with the core wire specifications, contact is good, no cracks, break. Tinned copper nose clean solder full exterior surface is smooth without burrs. Control cable Assembly should be fastened, dense, solid, clean, and beautiful. Secondary wiring the cable terminations should be arranged by the actual location of the device line cards, the wiring from the upper to the lower, from left to right in the order. Fixed to maintain consistent spacing between lines, flat, should be around the corner in the same location, same shape, to ensure that the wiring process neater and more elegant. 5 thermal process control measures for quality problems 5.1 control thermal duct system leakage measure to ensure that the use of electric door and actuator installation quality and equipment to the site to check its seal, acceptance, in order to fundamentally solve oil spill problems. Plant for local Panel after installation, in conjunction with the quality Department to check its overall quality, poor-quality parts replacement. Supply good quality of purchasing instrument and ovality of the guarantee instrument tubes as small as possible, selection of high quality, high precision sleeve connector. Instrument pipe welding, construction workers and technicians on every road, every instrument as well recorded and well identified in the instrument, welding welding following the end of each review, responsibility and prevention of welding, welding wrong. Requirements for welding personnel certified, and welding before welding training, select skills good sense to carry out construction, welding quality inspection and acceptance every day to ensure that the welding ... All unreleased material sampling, invited supervision engineers arrived at the scene, after confirmation by the supervising engineer, seal immediately sent authorized bodies in accordance with the requested test indicator test, according to the inspection report and approved by the supervising engineer to review and then transported for the construction. Amount of insulation materials shall 有一天，村里来个经济学家，他看到这样的状况之后，就赞同牧牛人和农夫进行交易。在不交易的情况下，牧牛人的最优是生产6斤牛肉24斤土豆，而农夫的最优生产是3斤牛肉和16斤的土豆 这些都是根据新古典经济学的边际效用相等得出的。 他找来农夫，让他专门生产土豆，生产32斤的土豆，牧牛人用3斤牛肉跟他换14斤土豆，那么农夫的产量变成了3斤牛肉和剩下的18斤土豆。 农夫的状况变好了----------增加了2斤土豆。 现在来分析牧牛人，他的生产变成9斤牛肉和12斤土豆，因为9乘以40等于360分钟，12乘以10等于120分钟，总共是480分钟，合计8个小时。 现在他用3斤牛肉和农夫换了14斤土豆，现在牧牛人的产量变成了6斤牛肉和26斤土豆。牧牛人的状况变好了---------增加了2斤土豆。 牧牛人就奇怪的问经济学家，怎么就变好了列。 经济学家就说，在大家看来，你什么都比农夫强，你具有绝对的优势。 但是有绝对优势的同时，在偶看来， 你必然在比较优势的条件下，你某一方面不如人家。可以这样说，你生产一斤牛肉的时间，只能用来生产48/12=4斤土豆。而对于农夫来说，他生产一斤牛肉的时间，可以用来生产32/6=5.3….斤土豆，这么说，对与总体来说，农夫生产土豆更有优势(比较优势) 牧牛人含糊的点了点头，好象是明白拉。 经济学家问了这么一个问题，如果迈可尔.乔丹是世界上打扫篮球地板最快的人，那么他是选择擦地板还是选择打球呢,还有一个例子，《鱼和熊掌不可兼得，舍鱼而取熊掌也》解释在附注------------这些涉及到机会成本的问题--------机会成本是指为了得到某个东西而放弃的东西。 我们大学生恋爱的机会成本很高，以为我们放弃的学习的时间~:) 3.市场经济 转眼间，社会飞速的发展，对整体经济的研究成为经济学家的头等大事，当年牧牛人和农夫的儿子都成为了专业养牛人和粮食种植专业户了，他们又遇到了问题需要解决，因为养牛人的牛会跑到粮食专业户的田里破坏谷物，本来想找律师解决问题，但是当年他们父辈之间由于经济学家解决而带来的好处，在两个家族之间流下了不可磨灭的印象，再者费用比较昂贵，所以他们又找来经济学家(科斯)来帮助他们解决这个问题。 经济学家首先对状况进行分析，得出如下的表格(这个过程花费了经济学家的时间和金钱，而且精确度还是未知) 牛群数和年谷物损失之间的关系 牛群数目 (头) 谷物年损失 (元) 每增一头牛给农夫造 成的谷物损失(元) 养牛者每增一头牛 的边际成本(元) 1 40 40 60 2 90 50 70 3 150 60 80 4 220 70 90 of support and hanger. Cable hole plugging gaps should use qualified fireproof materials, block surface should have sufficient strength, surface appearance. When cables pass through the firewall, of lax structure of local fire safety clamps. Thermoplastics production, to comply with the process, no bubbles in the thermoplastics pipes, linear nose consistent with the core wire specifications, contact is good, no cracks, break. Tinned copper nose clean solder full exterior surface is smooth without burrs. Control cable Assembly should be fastened, dense, solid, clean, and beautiful. Secondary wiring the cable terminations should be arranged by the actual location of the device line cards, the wiring from the upper to the lower, from left to right in the order. Fixed to maintain consistent spacing between lines, flat, should be around the corner in the same location, same shape, to ensure that the wiring process neater and more elegant. 5 thermal process control measures for quality problems 5.1 control thermal duct system leakage measure to ensure that the use of electric door and actuator installation quality and equipment to the site to check its seal, acceptance, in order to fundamentally solve oil spill problems. Plant for local Panel after installation, in conjunction with the quality Department to check its overall quality, poor-quality parts replacement. Supply good quality of purchasing instrument and ovality of the guarantee instrument tubes as small as possible, selection of high quality, high precision sleeve connector. Instrument pipe welding, construction workers and technicians on every road, every instrument as well recorded and well identified in the instrument, welding welding following the end of each review, responsibility and prevention of welding, welding wrong. Requirements for welding personnel certified, and welding before welding training, select skills good sense to carry out construction, welding quality inspection and acceptance every day to ensure that the welding ... All unreleased material sampling, invited supervision engineers arrived at the scene, after confirmation by the supervising engineer, seal immediately sent authorized bodies in accordance with the requested test indicator test, according to the inspection report and approved by the supervising engineer to review and then transported for the construction. Amount of insulation materials shall 5 300 80 100 6 390 90 110 7 490 100 120 8 600 110 130 9 720 120 140 ? 养牛者对牛给农夫造成的损失承担的情况 , 在养牛者对牛给农夫造成的损失承担责任的情况下，养牛者没有权利让牛群损害农夫谷物，如发生损害，则养牛者必须向农夫赔偿谷物的损失。这种产权的初始界定使谷物的损失内化为养牛者的生产成本，由此使养牛者的私人边际成本与社会边际成本相一致。这时，养牛者私人决策的结果与社会最优完全一致。 , 根据表的数字，如果牛的市场价格为每头140元，养牛者会将牛群数目增加到3头，因为第3头牛的私人边际成本80元加上外部损害60元正好是140元。 ? 养牛者对牛给农夫造成损失不承担责任的情况 在养牛者对牛给农夫造成的损失不承担责任时，养牛者私人决策的最优养牛数量一定会到9头。, , 养牛者将牛群数从8头增加到9头时，所增加的私人边际成本是140元，这头牛增加给农夫造成的谷物损失是120元，社会边际成本是260元，养牛者所赚的钱为零。在交易费用为零时，农夫可付给养牛者1元，要求养牛者不养第9头牛。在此情况下，养牛者不养第9头牛是合算的，而农夫却减少了120元的谷物损失，扣去1元的对养牛者的支付，仍然有119元的净收益。显然，农夫还可以用同样的办法让养牛者减少养牛数目。这一过程一定会在养牛者将牛群数目减少到只有3头时才会停止。 是应该给农夫的权利还是给养牛人这个权利呢，这个让科斯陷入了深思。 是什么问题让这样的分析假设行不通呢，科斯得出是在交易的时候是存在着成本的--------------虽然交易能够带来那么多的好处。(他有此利用交易成本这个工具开始了他的新制度经济学的研究道路) 他对这个问题所得出的结论感到非常的吃惊，不论你怎么分配权利，他们对结果对社会状况的影响是相同的，作为一个经济学家，他考虑的是怎么才能是整个社会的福利增加，科斯对这个问题进行了思考，认为这只是个纯理性的分析，从理论上总结出了他的第一定理。 , 在市场交易费用为零的情况下，产权制度安排对资源配置没有什么影响。因为，只要是重新安排产权能够增加产值的最大化，就可能通过市场交易或人们之间的讨价还价改变最初的权利界定，使资源实现优化配置。 , 换一句话说，如果市场交易费用为零，权利的初始安排向新的安排转变(即人们交易产权)不存在代价和阻力，即使初始安排对于实现资源配置的帕累托最优来说是不合理的，市场机制也会无代价地改变这种安排，将资源配置到需要的领域和最有用的人手里，以解决外部性，实现资源的最优配置 由此，又反思，因为交易费用肯定是存在的(他分析得出那个表格就花费了时间和金钱)，他由此发现了交易费用了存在，他的第二定理 “在我看来，交易费用不是为零而是为正，因而自然而然可以得出如下的推论:“一旦考虑到of support and hanger. Cable hole plugging gaps should use qualified fireproof materials, block surface should have sufficient strength, surface appearance. When cables pass through the firewall, of lax structure of local fire safety clamps. Thermoplastics production, to comply with the process, no bubbles in the thermoplastics pipes, linear nose consistent with the core wire specifications, contact is good, no cracks, break. Tinned copper nose clean solder full exterior surface is smooth without burrs. Control cable Assembly should be fastened, dense, solid, clean, and beautiful. Secondary wiring the cable terminations should be arranged by the actual location of the device line cards, the wiring from the upper to the lower, from left to right in the order. Fixed to maintain consistent spacing between lines, flat, should be around the corner in the same location, same shape, to ensure that the wiring process neater and more elegant. 5 thermal process control measures for quality problems 5.1 control thermal duct system leakage measure to ensure that the use of electric door and actuator installation quality and equipment to the site to check its seal, acceptance, in order to fundamentally solve oil spill problems. Plant for local Panel after installation, in conjunction with the quality Department to check its overall quality, poor-quality parts replacement. Supply good quality of purchasing instrument and ovality of the guarantee instrument tubes as small as possible, selection of high quality, high precision sleeve connector. Instrument pipe welding, construction workers and technicians on every road, every instrument as well recorded and well identified in the instrument, welding welding following the end of each review, responsibility and prevention of welding, welding wrong. Requirements for welding personnel certified, and welding before welding training, select skills good sense to carry out construction, welding quality inspection and acceptance every day to ensure that the welding ... All unreleased material sampling, invited supervision engineers arrived at the scene, after confirmation by the supervising engineer, seal immediately sent authorized bodies in accordance with the requested test indicator test, according to the inspection report and approved by the supervising engineer to review and then transported for the construction. Amount of insulation materials shall 进行市场交易的成本，……合法权利的初始界定会对经济制度运行的效率产生影响。” ?在交易成本大于零的现实世界，产权初始分配状态不能通过无成本的交易向最优状态变化，因而产权初始界定会对经济效率产生影响。 ?权利的调整只有在有利于总产值增长时才会发生，而且必须在调整引起的产值增长大于调整时所支出的交易成本时才会发生。 科斯在这个问题上，写了他最著名的《社会成本问题》 (一)关于科斯第二定理的第一层含义 “在交易成本大于零的现实世界，产权初始分配状态不能通过无成本的交易向最优状态变化，因而产权初始界定会对经济效率产生影响。” ? 养牛者对牛给农夫造成的损失承担责任的情况 要得到在每一种牛群规模下牛群损害谷物的准确数字是很困难的。如果统计牛群给谷物造成的损害费用比牛群给谷物造成的损害费用还高，那么，对牛群给谷物造成的损害进行统计这件事就是不合算的。在这种情况下，对牛群给谷物造成的损害进行统计就不会继续下去。而没有牛群损害农夫谷物的准确数字，要养牛者完全赔偿农夫谷物的损失，显然是不可能的。这就必然使养牛者私人最优决策的产量无法趋向考虑社会成本的最优产量。 ? 养牛者对牛给农夫造成的损失不承担责任的情况 在这种情况下，要使养牛者自动减少牛的头数，以降低牛群对谷物的损害，农夫必须向养牛者进行补偿。要使补偿交易达成，无论是农夫还是养牛者都必须对每增加一头牛给谷物的边际损害有完全准确的了解，否则，农夫不会清楚地知道到底应该给养牛者以多大的补偿，以使其减少牛的数量。养牛者也不会清楚自己到底应该向农夫要求多大的补偿才能避免损失。显然，无论是农夫还是养牛者都不可能准确了解每头牛给谷物的边际损害，要作到这一点是费用高昂的、甚至是不可能的。 由此科斯把目光放在了对社会的研究上 (二)关于科斯第二定理的第二层含义 ， “权利的调整只有在有利于总产值增长时才会发生，而且必须在调整引起的产值增长大于调整时所支出的交易成本时才会发生。” ， 科斯提出了两种权利调整的方式——用组织企业或政府管制代替市场交易方式。科斯认为，这两种权利调整方式同样是有成本的，只有调整带来的收益大于成本时，企业或政府管制方式才会替代市场交易方式。 1.组织企业 ， 科斯指出，当交易费用太高，市场的自发交易无法解决上述外部性问题时，组织企业或企业一体化是一种替代方式。 ， 当然，这并不意味着通过企业组织交易的行政成本必定低于被取代的市场交易的成本，但是只要企业的行政成本低于其所替代的市场交易的成本，企业活动的调整所获的收益多于企业的组织成本，人们就会采用这种方式。 of support and hanger. Cable hole plugging gaps should use qualified fireproof materials, block surface should have sufficient strength, surface appearance. When cables pass through the firewall, of lax structure of local fire safety clamps. Thermoplastics production, to comply with the process, no bubbles in the thermoplastics pipes, linear nose consistent with the core wire specifications, contact is good, no cracks, break. Tinned copper nose clean solder full exterior surface is smooth without burrs. Control cable Assembly should be fastened, dense, solid, clean, and beautiful. Secondary wiring the cable terminations should be arranged by the actual location of the device line cards, the wiring from the upper to the lower, from left to right in the order. Fixed to maintain consistent spacing between lines, flat, should be around the corner in the same location, same shape, to ensure that the wiring process neater and more elegant. 5 thermal process control measures for quality problems 5.1 control thermal duct system leakage measure to ensure that the use of electric door and actuator installation quality and equipment to the site to check its seal, acceptance, in order to fundamentally solve oil spill problems. Plant for local Panel after installation, in conjunction with the quality Department to check its overall quality, poor-quality parts replacement. Supply good quality of purchasing instrument and ovality of the guarantee instrument tubes as small as possible, selection of high quality, high precision sleeve connector. Instrument pipe welding, construction workers and technicians on every road, every instrument as well recorded and well identified in the instrument, welding welding following the end of each review, responsibility and prevention of welding, welding wrong. Requirements for welding personnel certified, and welding before welding training, select skills good sense to carry out construction, welding quality inspection and acceptance every day to ensure that the welding ... All unreleased material sampling, invited supervision engineers arrived at the scene, after confirmation by the supervising engineer, seal immediately sent authorized bodies in accordance with the requested test indicator test, according to the inspection report and approved by the supervising engineer to review and then transported for the construction. Amount of insulation materials shall 2.政府管制 在企业内部组织交易的行政成本也许很高，尤其是当许多不同活动集中在单个组织的控制之下时更是如此。以可能影响许多从事各种活动的人的烟尘妨害问题为例，其行政成本可能如此之高，以至于在单个企业范围内解决这个问题的任何企图都是不可能的。一种替代的办法是政府的直接管制。政府强制性地规定人们必须做什么或不得做什么，并要求人们必须服从之。因此，政府在解决烟尘妨害时，可能颁布可以采用或不许采用的生产方法(如应安置防烟尘设备或不得燃烧某种煤或油)，或者明确规定特定区域的特定经营范围(如区域管制)。 科斯的总结 在存在交易费用的情况下，对于外部性问题，并非只有庇古等人所说的政府干预这一种办法。 “问题在于如何选择合适的社会安排来解决有害的效应。所有解决的办法都需要一定的成本，没有理由认为由于市场和企业不能很好地解决问题，因此政府管制就是有必要的。” “我们必须考虑各种社会格局的运行成本(不论它是市场机制还是政府管制机制)，以及转成一种新制度的成本。在和选择社会格局时，我们应考虑总的效果。这就是我所提倡的方法的改变。” 三、科斯第三定理 在交易成本大于零的情况下，产权的清晰界定将有助于降低人们在交易过程中的成本，改进经济效率。换言之，如果存在交易成本，没有产权的界定与保护等规则，即没有产权制度，则产权的交易与经济效率的改进就难以展开。 规范的科斯定理”的表述，即:通过建立法律来消除私人的障碍。 由此科斯开创了对企业和社会组织的产生原因从一个新的经济学的角度进行了分析。 附注: 1(帕累托最优(Pareto Optimality)，也称为帕累托效率、帕累托改善，是博弈论中的重要概念. 帕累托最优是指资源分配的一种状态，在不使任何人境况变坏的情况下，而不可能再使某些人的处境变好。帕累托改进是指一种变化，在没有使任何人境况变坏的前提下，使得至少一个人变得更好。一方面，帕累托最优是指没有进行帕累托改进的余地的状态;另一方面，帕累托改进是达到帕累托最优的路径和方法。帕累托最优是公平与效率的“理想王国”。 帕累托改进是指一种变化，在没有使任何人境况变坏的前提下，使得至少一个人变得更好。一方面，帕累托最优是指没有进行帕累托改进的余地的状态;另一方面，帕累托改进是达到帕累托最优的路径和方法。 达到帕累托最优时，会同时满足以下3个条件: 交换最优:即使再交易，个人也不能从中得到更大的利益。此时对任意两个消费者，任意两种商品的边际替代率是相同的，且两个消费者的效用同时得到最大化。 生产最优:这个经济体必须在自己的生产可能性边界上。此时对任意两个生产不同产品的生of support and hanger. Cable hole plugging gaps should use qualified fireproof materials, block surface should have sufficient strength, surface appearance. When cables pass through the firewall, of lax structure of local fire safety clamps. Thermoplastics production, to comply with the process, no bubbles in the thermoplastics pipes, linear nose consistent with the core wire specifications, contact is good, no cracks, break. Tinned copper nose clean solder full exterior surface is smooth without burrs. Control cable Assembly should be fastened, dense, solid, clean, and beautiful. Secondary wiring the cable terminations should be arranged by the actual location of the device line cards, the wiring from the upper to the lower, from left to right in the order. Fixed to maintain consistent spacing between lines, flat, should be around the corner in the same location, same shape, to ensure that the wiring process neater and more elegant. 5 thermal process control measures for quality problems 5.1 control thermal duct system leakage measure to ensure that the use of electric door and actuator installation quality and equipment to the site to check its seal, acceptance, in order to fundamentally solve oil spill problems. Plant for local Panel after installation, in conjunction with the quality Department to check its overall quality, poor-quality parts replacement. Supply good quality of purchasing instrument and ovality of the guarantee instrument tubes as small as possible, selection of high quality, high precision sleeve connector. Instrument pipe welding, construction workers and technicians on every road, every instrument as well recorded and well identified in the instrument, welding welding following the end of each review, responsibility and prevention of welding, welding wrong. Requirements for welding personnel certified, and welding before welding training, select skills good sense to carry out construction, welding quality inspection and acceptance every day to ensure that the welding ... All unreleased material sampling, invited supervision engineers arrived at the scene, after confirmation by the supervising engineer, seal immediately sent authorized bodies in accordance with the requested test indicator test, according to the inspection report and approved by the supervising engineer to review and then transported for the construction. Amount of insulation materials shall 产者，需要投入的两种生产要素的边际技术替代率是相同的，且两个消费者的产量同时得到最大化。 产品混合最优:经济体产出产品的组合必须反映消费者的偏好。此时任意两种商品之间的边际替代率必须与任何生产者在这两种商品之间的边际产品转换率相同。 帕累托最优是以提出这个概念的意大利经济学家维弗雷多•帕雷托的名字命名的， 维弗雷多•帕雷托在他关于经济效率和收入分配的研究中使用了这个概念。 如果一个经济体不是帕累托最优，则存在一些人可以在不使其他人的境况变坏的情况下使自己的境况变好的情形。普遍认为这样低效的产出的情况是需要避免的，因此帕累托最优是评价一个经济体和政治方针的非常重要的标准。 2(《鱼与熊掌的故事》 鱼，我所欲也;熊掌，亦我所欲也。二者不可兼得，舍鱼而去熊掌也。 从经济学的角度来分析，我得到鱼，就必须放弃熊掌，得到鱼的成本是放弃了熊掌;我得到熊掌，就必须放弃鱼，得到熊掌的成本就是放弃鱼。熊掌的价值大于鱼，这说明得到鱼的成本比得到熊掌的成本高，所以我们选择了熊掌。 参考文献:《经济学原理》N.格里高利.曼昆 新制度经济学 湖南大学 袁庆平 关于新制度经济学 张五常 of support and hanger. Cable hole plugging gaps should use qualified fireproof materials, block surface should have sufficient strength, surface appearance. When cables pass through the firewall, of lax structure of local fire safety clamps. Thermoplastics production, to comply with the process, no bubbles in the thermoplastics pipes, linear nose consistent with the core wire specifications, contact is good, no cracks, break. Tinned copper nose clean solder full exterior surface is smooth without burrs. Control cable Assembly should be fastened, dense, solid, clean, and beautiful. Secondary wiring the cable terminations should be arranged by the actual location of the device line cards, the wiring from the upper to the lower, from left to right in the order. Fixed to maintain consistent spacing between lines, flat, should be around the corner in the same location, same shape, to ensure that the wiring process neater and more elegant. 5 thermal process control measures for quality problems 5.1 control thermal duct system leakage measure to ensure that the use of electric door and actuator installation quality and equipment to the site to check its seal, acceptance, in order to fundamentally solve oil spill problems. Plant for local Panel after installation, in conjunction with the quality Department to check its overall quality, poor-quality parts replacement. Supply good quality of purchasing instrument and ovality of the guarantee instrument tubes as small as possible, selection of high quality, high precision sleeve connector. Instrument pipe welding, construction workers and technicians on every road, every instrument as well recorded and well identified in the instrument, welding welding following the end of each review, responsibility and prevention of welding, welding wrong. Requirements for welding personnel certified, and welding before welding training, select skills good sense to carry out construction, welding quality inspection and acceptance every day to ensure that the welding ... All unreleased material sampling, invited supervision engineers arrived at the scene, after confirmation by the supervising engineer, seal immediately sent authorized bodies in accordance with the requested test indicator test, according to the inspection report and approved by the supervising engineer to review and then transported for the construction. Amount of insulation materials shall