附件下载：411199doc - 年轮网络日记本_心情日记_宝宝成长日记_创业

附件下载：411199doc - 年轮网络日记本_心情日记_宝宝成长日记_创业 Session 5: Market Driven Journalism Fan Hong 1. A Model of Commercial News Production • Previous models have excluded the concept of markets • None have used economics to explain what happens in newsrooms • Joseph Turow: a full cast of primary players news sources, revenue sources, consumers, investors, corporate executives, reporters and editors • Turow’s theory of ‘resource dependence’ --- Parties seek to avoid depending on other actors while increasing others’ reliance upon themselves. --- E.g. a city council member (source) TV stations • Mcmanus’ theory of ‘exchange’ Three reasons for such a term 1) The relationships between roles are more co-operative than dependent. 2) There must be an underlying economic rule to the commercial news production. 3) It’s easier to understand what constitute ‘exchange’. • This model uses economic reasoning as an integrating concept. Each role in such a model attempts to increase its supply of what it sees as valuable by trading with others. There is a ‘bottom line’ to each of these relationships. 2. Introducing the Players • Social environment: the norm of culture, laws, regulations, technology, etc. 1 All these shape the interactions among players. • Investors --- owners of the media firm --- parent corporation of the media firm --- mostly stockholders: chains / conglomerate corporations --- Their will is exercised through the election (?) of /participation on the corporation’s board of directors. • Parent Corporation --- owns several media firms or non- media companies. E.g. The Disney Company --- It sells shares of the company to investors. --- Top executive(s) in the board of directors --- Top managers serve at the pleasure of the board but often nominate board candidates. --- They direct operations, formulate policy and select top managers of subsidiaries. • Media Firm --- It is the local branch of the parent corporation, a single station or a newspaper. --- The managers serve at the pleasure of parent corporation managers. --- departments: production, syndication, advertising sales, news, distribution, PR, etc. • News Department: a sub-unit of a media firm --- depends upon the media firm for resources --- produces news --- the news director or the managing director works for the pleasure of the general manager of the media firm. --- News department should not be called news organization. TV: 10% of the programming is news. 90% entertaining. Newspaper: 70% advertising +editorials, 20% news 2 *This exaggerates the importance of the function of producing news, but it ignores other functions. • News department culture: two sets of ‘oughts’ norm of journalism: public enlightenment to inform to help learning norm of business: to maximize profits over an indefinite period (shortening) • Newsworkers all the employees creating news directly • Three stages of production discovery, selection, reporting • News decisions: newsworthiness • Constraints: set by others selection bias of the dept. Independent journalists are not tolerated. • News Sources --- the providers of the raw material of news, including anyone reporters turn to for information • Advertisers --- the providers of the income that fuel the enterprise 100% for TV or broadcast 70-90% for newspaper • News consumers • The general public 3. Primary Relationship • In a market-based economy, commercial media firms must compete for resources in the four markets: investors sources of news advertisers 3 news consumers • Investors --- Parent Corporation • Parent Corporation --- Media Firm • Media Firm --- News Department • News Sources --- News Department • Advertiser --- Media Firm • News Consumer --- News Department • News Consumer --- the General Public Investors --- Parent Corporation I exercises direct and explicit influence within PC’s corporate structure I: provide capitals; set operation conditions expect to gain profits; set up image or prestige PC: sell stock; vulnerable to buyout by investors; pressurized by current investors or perspective owners Parent Corporation --- Media Firm PC: allocate capital and set policy; choose MF executive; collect revenues from MF: disburse in profits to shareholders allocate to other business properties MF: serve at the pleasure of PC; PC is the levelling agent for its corporate children Media Firm --- News Department MF: hire and fire the head of ND set ND’s budget and audience goals establish general new policy Newspaper: takes a small proportion of MF revenues local news : most important commodity to a station 1) tight control: 16 mins (32 spots) sold by stations; profitable 4 shared clearance fees 2) ‘halo effect’: identify news personalities, anchors; maintain a favorable audience flow 3) growing competition for viewers: not affecting local news very much • News Sources --- News Department NS: via reporters they or their ideas gain favourable public access. They will consider a) certain qualities of audience: help them to achieve their goals b) positively-framed content : how to cover; quotation c) editorial environment: a prestige news product NYT ND: seek information interesting to consumers at the least cost. Create reliable sources. • Advertisers --- Media Firm explicit exchange Advertiser pays for the attention of a certain consuming group. the larger the audience the richer the audience the more they wish to consume the more valuable the advertising space to A (retailers) the higher the fees MF can charge • News Consumers --- News Department NC: attention traded for ND: information News: a consumer durable good that a viewer ‘purchases’ by spending time, which is as precious as money. ND: seeks attention of various audience both for journalistic purpose and to sell to advertiser. Note: difference between newspaper and stations • News Consumer --- the General Public NC: the consumers of news products of any one particular department GP: the consumers of news products of other news departments; those don’t 5 keep up with news informational differences , cultural + economic differences 4. Who Has the Most Power? • Are consumers the key players? • What role does news media play? • Whoever pays the piper calls the tune? • Are the ‘patrons’ important? • Are the ‘owners’ important? • How about the large investors? • Are ‘liberal reporters’ in charge? • Are the rich and powerful within society important? • The primary role: major investors and owners. consumer tastes, advertiser’s support news sources. 5. Conclusion • Under owner’s /investor’s instructions • Profit demands from the market for investors • Guided by a news organizational culture Two standards: business and journalistic • Media firm competes for four markets: Investors, sources, advertisers, and consumers News: reflection of reality , a commodity 6 Session 5: Manufacturing Consent E. S. Herman and Noam Chomsky A Propaganda Model , Mass media: a system for communicating messages and symbols to the populace , Their functions: to inform, amuse, entertain, to inculcate individuals with the values, beliefs, codes of behaviour To fulfill this role requires propaganda A propaganda system works in the following situations: 1) monopolistic control over media 2) official censorship 3) the media serving the ends of a dominant elite A propaganda system can hardly be seen when: 1) The media are private. 2) There is no formal censorship 3) The media portray themselves as spokesmen for free speech and general community interest. 4) The media compete, attack and expose corporate and governmental malfeasance A propaganda model is made use of by the rich and the powerful. , Functions of the propaganda model: 1) to filter the news to print 2) to marginalize dissents 7 3) to dominate the media in order to convey their own messages to the public mainly by using money and power A Propaganda Model , Five filters in the model: 1) size, ownership, and profit orientation 2) advertising 3) the reliance on the rich and the powerful sources 4) ‗flak‘ 5) ‗anti-communism‘ religion This model is so powerful that 1) It cannot be seen through by media news people themselves. (professional news values, objectivity, integrity, good will, etc.) 2) There are almost no alternatives. 3) It is manipulated by government. (priority assigned to government-supplied raw materials) To see the pattern of manipulation and systematic bias requires both macro and micro views. (media operation and story) st1 filter: size, ownership and profit orientation The tiered media: prestige, resources and outreach national companies vs. local news dispensers the top tiers (10-24) vs. the lower tiers the top tier, along with the government and the wire services, defines the news agenda and supplies national and international news to the lower tiers of the media. 8 , Centralization within the top tier has been increased by the rise of TV and the national TV network. Pre-TV: local news market Post-TV: national and international news market Cable: fragmenting TV audiences Media’s integration with the market , Consideration of the bottom-line profit , Media stock being market favourites , Possible to capitalize increased audience size and advertising revenues into multiplied values of the media franchises and great wealth , More focused on profitability than before The trend toward greater integration of the media into the market system has been accelerated by the loosening of rules limiting media concentration, cross-ownership, and control by non-media companies. , The greater profitability of the media in a deregulated environment has led to takeovers and takeover threats. , Commercial use of the media (profit-making) Investors force the media to , face a strict market objective (profits) , to diversify its activities into profitable areas , to spread geographically (takeovers) So it is difficult to remain in a single media sector to survive. 9 The media‘s dependence and ties with government Legal dependence: government licences and franchises a club to discipline the media stMain points in the 1 model: , Only large media companies can be dominant. , They are controlled by the rich people. , The managers are forced to seek profits for the investors. , These companies depend on government and big businesses for sources, policy and money. News is first filtered through above constraints. nd2 filter: advertising , Before ads, the price of newspaper can cover its costs. , An ad-based system has nearly driven out the existence of the media depending on their sales alone. , It has also driven into marginality of such media companies. , The choices of the advertisers influence media prosperity and survival. , ad-based media vs. ad-free media , Ad-based media’s attraction to both ‘upscale’ and ‘downscale’ audience , The successful media are fully attuned to the importance of audience ‘quality’. , Client Audience Profile: to help advertisers to optimize the 10 effectiveness of their schedules. , The power of advertisers: 1) They are ‗patrons‘, subsidizing the media. 2) The media must serve their needs. 3) ‗normative reference organization‘ An audience gain or loss of one percentage point will affect stadvertising revenue greatly (1 parag., p172) , Conservative choices of advertisers (culturally and politically) , Advertisers seek non-controversial, lightly-entertaining programmes which help to disseminate their selling messages. , Advertisers emphasize audience ‗flow‘ levels 3rd filter: sources , A symbiotic relationship between mass media and sources of information , Economic necessity: too expensive to send reporters everywhere , Reciprocity of interest , Media‘s daily news demands and imperative news schedules Media concentrate the resources: where significant news/rumours often occurs (where?) , Central nodes and regular news ‗beats‘ for national media and local media , Fishman‘s ‗the principle of bureaucratic affinity‘ (institutional) The primary news source: government and large corporate bureaucracies 11 , The sources are recognizable, reliable, scheduled, and ready-prepared , News/Press officers / promoters‘ efforts , They subsidize the mass media by reducing the media‘s costs of news gathering and production. , Such sources are ‗routine‘ news sources and have privileged access to the gates. , The citizenry pays to be propagandized in the interest of powerful groups. , The powerful uses personal relationships, threats, and rewards to influence and coerce the media. , The obligation of the media not to offend the sources and disturb the relationship Powerful sources can deny the critics access to the media in several ways: , A. inundating the media with stories , B. help chase the unwanted stories off the front page ‗experts‘ supply of news Who are the ‗experts‘? Consultants, think tanks, etc. (on the payroll) They are hired to help disseminate the messages of the government and ‗the market‘. Structured bias and ‗skewed‘ supply 4th filter: ―Flak‖ These flak machines are well treated by the media. Their propagandistic roles are ignored. 12 , Who are major producers of ‗flak‘? Government: assail, threaten, correct the media News management itself th5 filter: Anti-Communism (What is Communism?) A theoretical economic system characterized by the collective ownership of property and by the organization of labor for the common advantage of all members. A system of government in which the state plans and controls the economy, claiming to make progress toward a higher social order in which all goods are equally shared by the people. The Marxist-Leninist version of Communist doctrine that advocates the overthrow of capitalism by the revolution of the proletariat. Communism is the ultimate evil, which threatens the root of the class position and superior status of the rich and the powerful. ， The well–publicized abuses of Communist countries have helped elevating opposition to Communism. ， Anti-Communism has become a first principle of the Western ideology and politics. , This ideology helps mobilize the populace against an enemy and is used as a weapon against any interests in relation to Communism. , Fascism is viewed as a lesser evil than Communism. , It is used to fragment the left and the labour. , Opposition to social democrats is rationalized. , Liberals are kept on the defensive. , In politics, internalized religions vs. outward demonstration of 13 anti-communism credentials (evidences) , Anti-communism is a dominant religion , Allegations and threats to any Communist links , Communism is used as an excuse for liars , A dichotomized world: Communist vs. Anti-communist powers. Contesting sides and ‗our side‘ (legitimate news practice) The Propaganda Model , 5 filters: Narrow the range of news gatekeepers and other powerful parties E.g. Violation of human rights and attack on trade union: ‗The example of Turkey‘: unworthy ‗The case of Poland‘: score political points; worthy; , Why: Concentrate on the victims of enemy powers and forget about the victims of friends. , Such reports can pass through the filters , They can also become the basis of sustained propaganda campaigns , To denigrate an official enemy in order to advance its own government administration 媒介肩护着重要的使命，如娱乐等要完成对个人的社会化，但在好 多方面是不平等的，是受各种利益集团，机构控制的。本文探讨的就是 新闻组织是怎样异化为一个制造同意的工具。 刊登什么样的信息和以什么样的方式刊登，需要经过五道关卡， ；1，主要媒体的规模，财产多寡，拥有者和盈利驱动；2，主 要收入来源的广告商；3对信息提供者如政府、商界、所谓的专家的依 14 赖；4约束媒体的一种纪律——反媒体宣传；5，反共产主义。这五个过 滤器相互作用，彼此加强。它们的作用往往是自然而然发生的，那些媒 体从业人员也就在不知不觉的服从的同时还以为他们坚持了客观公正。 一，:媒体是有层次之分，小媒体虽然数量众多，但岂不了什么作用，只有那些有名气，新闻源广、报道领域多的顶层媒 体从能够决定下一级的新闻议程，从而决定大众的议程许多的媒介公司 已完全卷入了市场，另外一些没有完全进入的也受到来自股东、董事和 银行家的巨大压力。媒介越能赚钱，这种压力越大。因为媒体有特许权。 许多家族媒体公司被分割就是一例。媒体越来越已盈利为取向这一趋势 由于政府放松了对媒体集中的控制和媒体经营许可权的限制而加剧了。 环境恶化下要求媒体更加盈利，这就导致了兼并的增加。只搞一种媒介 的越来越少，非媒介公司插足新闻业的越来越多。还有，政府可以通过 发放执照来约束媒体听话。二，：作不作广告对报纸的生 存至关重要。广告是媒体的赞助商，是生命线。广告主处于主动地位， 媒体之间相互竞争以赢得广告。广告主不但歧视对他们不友好的媒体， 而且在节目是上也不断介入：只选择与他们原则相套的，有争议性的、 批评性的，复杂性的、严肃的——凡是破坏受众购买欲望的他们都不喜欢。三，：基于经济考虑和互利的需要，媒体与强大的信源之 间构成了一种系统关系。新闻机构需要稳定可靠的新闻素材，最佳地方 就是白宫、五角大楼、国务院和大公司的办事处。后者为了巩固和加强 这一地位，乐意为新闻媒体提供便利。他们的服务，长久的合作使得媒 体不敢轻易得罪，值得怀疑的新闻也报，批判就是模棱两可；强有力的 新闻源不但能够阻止批判出现，还能左右媒体，设法安排媒体的议程； 方法之一就是海量信息去淹；在意见领袖的处理上也有一套（顾问、资 助其研究、招进智囊团）。四，：对媒体的负面反应可以以 多种形式出现。如果它们大规模的、来自重要新闻源的话，媒体是吃不 消的。广告主更是敏感得很。这种负面反应与权力有关系。它以直接或 间接的形式出现。新闻室——专门进攻；政府是最主要的产生者。五， ：反共是西方意识形态和政治的首要原则，强于纳粹。概念 上的模糊使得任何触及利用集团的主动、行为都有可能扣上这样一顶大 帽子。国内的自由主义者经常被指控支持共产主义，他们谨小慎微，一 旦出错，后果无法承担。反共控制对媒体影响极大。他们在这两分 的世界里小心行事。 。过滤器还是放大器或缩小器，取决于各种关系。 例如：虐待政治犯；人权问题； 15