英语国家文化

英语国家文化 1.Britsh higher education US copare 英国高等教育 英国 5. Higher education Higher Education ,Higher education is education provided by universities and other institutions that award academic degrees. ,both the teaching and the research activities ,both the undergraduate and the graduatelevel • • Long History • • Oxford and Cambridge date from the 12th and 13th century. • St Andrews, Glasgow, Edinburgh and Aberdeen in the 14th and 15th century. • The rest in 19th and 20th century • • Types of Degree • • A three-level hierarchy of degrees (Bachelor, Master, Doctor) is currently used in the UK. • • The British Bachelors Degree typically takes three years to complete. This is different from many other countries that typically take four years. • The main reason is that UK students (except in Scotland) spend a year longer in High School than in many countries. As a result, they have already covered a lot of the material typically taught in the first year at university in other countries. • This is the reason why many international students will require an International Foundation Program before progressing onto the first year of a UK degree. • Types of Undergraduate Degree include: • BSc (Bachelor of Science), • BA (Bachelor of Arts), • BEng (Bachelor of Engineering). • A Masters degree takes a minimum of one year to complete. • Types of Masters Degree: • MSc (Master of Science), • MA (Master of Arts), • MEd (Master of Education), • MBA (Master of Business Administration). • • After usually three years? further study beyond the Master?s Degree, the candidate may present a thesis for the Doctorate of Philosophy (Ph.D.). All doctorates granted by British universities are research doctorates. • Famous Groups of Universities • • One is the “Red Brick” group comprising the six universities in the industrial cities of Birmingham, Bristol, Leeds, Manchester, Liverpool and Sheffield. • These were founded in the Victorian era and achieved university status prior to World War II. The focus on practicality(实践性). • There is also the collaboration of twenty British universities to form the “Russell Group” which corresponds to the “Ivy League” in the United States. • The members include: • University of Cambridge, University of Oxford, University of Birmingham, University of Bristol, Cardiff University, University of Edinburgh, University of Glasgow, etc. • The Open University • • ― founded in the 1960?s for people who might not get the opportunity for higher education for economic and social reasons. • ― It?s open to everybody and doesn?t demand the same formal educational qualifications as the other universities. • ― Universities courses are followed through TV, video,correspondence, and a network of study centers. ― At the end of their studies, successful students are awarded a university degree. 美国高等教育 2.2.4 Post-secondary/Higher Education Admission to a University Traditionally, students apply to get admission into university with differing difficulties of entrance. All schools vary in their reputation and competitiveness. Usually, the most prestigious schools are private. Although admission policies vary from one university to the next, most determine admission based on several criteria, including a student?s high school course of study, high school Grade Point Average (GPA), participation in extracurricular activities, SAT or ACT exam scores, a written essay, and possibly a personal interview. Many colleges regard as subjective factors, for example, an engagement to extracurricular activities, an interview, and a personal essay. The University Admissions Office considers whether a student has taken courses in high school that have prepared him/her for more difficult coursework. A student?s high school GPA is considered. A GPA is a quantitative figure representing a student?s accumulated grades. Each letter grade is assigned a number of points: A = 4 points, B = 3, C = 2, D = 1 and F = 0. A GPA is calculated by adding all of the points earned for each course grade and dividing the total points by the total number of courses taken. For example, a GPA of 3.0 is a “B” average for all of the courses taken. Degrees Once admitted, students take part in undergraduate study to gain a bachelor?s degree in an area of focus called a major. The most common system comprises of four years of education leading to B.S. (a Bachelor of Science), B.A. (a Bachelor of Arts), or another bachelor?s degree like B.F.A. (Bachelor of Fine Arts), B.S.W. (Bachelor of Social Work), B.Eng. (Bachelor of Engineering,) and others. Five-Year Professional Architecture programs offer the Bachelor of Architecture Degree (B.Arch.) Categories of Institutions Higher education in the United States includes a variety of institutions. You have surely noticed that US higher education institutions come under various names: Middlebury College, Princeton University, or Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In the US, institutions providing higher education can be called by any of these names: colleges, universities, institutes. “School” is also used in informal communication, like in “at my school in Florida we have many students from Romania”. Upon completion of high school, individuals have the opportunity to further their education through vocational or technical schools, universities, both public and private, for-profit schools, and community colleges. The following will examine the types of educational institutions established within the realm of higher education. The system of higher education in the US usually comprises three categories of institution. They are the two-year or community college, the four-year undergraduate institution, and the comprehensive university. Community College: Education for All Students have the option of attending a two-year community college before applying to a four-year university. Admission to community college is easier, tuition is lower, and class sizes are often smaller than in a university. Community colleges offer career certifications and part-time programs. In most states, community colleges are operated either by a division of the state university or by local special districts subject to guidance from a state agency. Community colleges may award Associate of Arts (AA) or Associate of Science (AS) degree after two years. Those seeking to continue their education may transfer to a four-year college or university (after applying through a similar admissions process as those applying directly to the four-year institution). Four-year Undergraduate Institution A four-year institution is a post-secondary institution that offers at least a bachelor?s degree upon successful completion of established graduation requirements. Most commonly, four-year institutions in the United States are colleges and universities that offer undergraduate programs. Four years is the typical amount of time it takes to complete the undergraduate coursework, if the student attends full-time. Four-year institutions may be public or private colleges or universities. Four-year institutions which emphasize the liberal arts are liberal arts colleges. A liberal arts college is one with a primary emphasis on undergraduate study in the liberal arts and sciences. Students in the liberal arts generally major in a particular discipline while receiving exposure to a wide range of academic subjects, including sciences as well as the traditional humanities subjects taught as liberal arts. Liberal arts colleges aim at imparting broad general knowledge and developing general intellectual capacities, in contrast to a professional, vocational, or technical curriculum. Comprehensive Universities Universities are research-oriented institutions which provide both undergraduate and graduate education. Most universities give undergraduate students a liberal education, which means students are required to take courses across several disciplines before they specialize in a major field of study. Graduate and professional (such as medicine or law) programs are specialized. At the university level, most courses are only one semester long. Each course is assigned a number of credit hours. Credit hours are usually based on how much time is spent in class each week. Most courses are 3 credits. However, some courses may be 1, 2, 4 or 5 credits. All degree programs require students to complete a minimum number of credit hours before graduation. Most Bachelor?s degree programs in the United States do not require students to write a final thesis. Public and Private Universities The American university and college system is highly decentralized with both public and privately operated institutions. Schools can be non-profit or for-profit. The US Department of Education estimates that close to 70% of all undergraduate students attend public institutions, which include undergraduates at two-year, community colleges and four-year colleges and universities. Tuition and living costs of public education are typically lower than for private — for instance a recent Department of Education estimate put average total costs of attendance for undergraduates at public four-year institutions at near $15,000 per year versus close to $30,000 for private, for-profit, four-year institutions. Students making a decision between a public and private school usually consider many factors, such as total costs, available financial aid, fit of academic programs with career goals, class sizes, convenience of classes, flexibility of studies, location, housing options, characteristics of the student body, reputation, and much more. Most public institutions are state universities, which are sponsored by state governments and typically receive funding through some combination of taxpayer funds, tuition, private donations, federal grants, and proceeds from endowments. State universities are organized in a wide variety of ways, and many are part of a state university system. However, not all public institutions are state universities. The five service academies, one for each branch of the armed forces, are completely funded by the federal government; the academies train students (cadets or midshipmen) to be commissioned officers in exchange for a mandatory term of military service. Additionally, some local governments (counties and cities) have four-year institutions of their own — one example is the City University of New York. Many of the nation?s four-year colleges are public. Public universities are intended for the educational needs of a particular state, are financed mainly by state funding, and provide a quality education. Public colleges receive a significant amount of funding from taxes, keeping tuition low. Because they are operated partially with state or local funds, public institutions are closely supervised by one or more governing boards. The locally elected boards set tuition and fee costs for public community colleges. Public universities set their own tuition rates, and fees vary greatly from institution to institution. Higher tuition is charged to out-of-state residents since they do not contribute to the tax pool. Although tuition and other costs at state colleges are considered low, financial aid and scholarships are available for qualified applicants. Advantages of public universities include: comparatively low tuition, a wide variety of study options, admission is moderately easy, and close to home for residents of the state. Disadvantages include: class size is large, especially during the first two years, which leaves little opportunity for interaction with staff and individual study programs. Private colleges are not publicly funded, so tuition and fees are generally higher than for public colleges. Many private colleges are church affiliated and receive funding from their religious denomination. Many private institutions (and more and more public institutions) depend on endowments and donations to help keep their costs down. Some private colleges have prestigious names that are known locally, nationally or internationally. Financial aid and scholarships are often awarded to a large number of students at private colleges. There is a wide range of private universities including high-status universities, religious oriented universities, specialized curriculum or special needs universities, business oriented universities, and ethnic oriented universities. Some private institutions are large research universities, while others are small liberal arts colleges that concentrate on undergraduate education. Some private universities are nonsectarian while others are religiously-affiliated. Advantages of private universities include: few students thus a lower student-faculty ratio, admission is more individualized, more personalized support and study options, high completion rates. Disadvantages include: higher tuition costs, selective admission policies, and greater distance from home (Eckel & King, 2005). The Ivy League The Ivy League is an athletic conference comprising eight private institutions of higher education in the Northeastern United States. The use of the phrase is no longer limited to athletics, and now represents an educational philosophy inherent to the nation?s oldest schools. Ivy League schools are often viewed by the public as some of long-established and the most prestigious universities which are often ranked amongst the best universities in the United States and worldwide. The eight institutions are Brown University, Columbia University, Cornell University, Dartmouth College, Harvard University, Princeton University, the University of Pennsylvania, and Yale University. The term Ivy League also has connotations of academic excellence, selectivity in admissions, and social elitism. Compare(公立，私立) I Introduction •Compulsory •Every child in America is guaranteed up to 12 yearsof education until ages sixteen to eighteendepending on the individual state. ,K12 system (kindergarten-Grade12) ,Britain: 5-16 11 years •A Local Matter ,Education is primarily the responsibility of state and local government, that is, it is state-administrated rather than nation-administrated, so there is no national curriculum. Britain:Interference of the central government & national curriculum •School board (教育委员会/校董事会) •Each school district is governed by a school board: --a small committee of people elected by the local community or appointed by the local government. The school board sets general policies for the school and insures that state guidelines are met. •Funding Federal Government 8.5% Public State Government 48.7%school 91.5% fundsLocal Government 42.8% ?Religious Education Four out of five private schoolsin USare run by churches, in which religious teachings are provided (Religious instruction is not given in public schools). ,Religious instruction is given in all schools in Britain. ,Free Choices About 87% of American students attend public schools(schools supported by taxpayers). The other 10% attend private schools, for which their families pay tuition and fees. About 3% choose Home Schooling (在家教育). ,Britain: also free choice •Home Schooling •Some parents wish to add religious instruction to the curriculum but may be unable to afford a church-operated private school or the only available school may teach views contrary to those of the parents. 有少部份父母选择在家中教育子女，但必须向所属学区政府申请，并提 出教学计划，如此今后才能够取得学历，否则会不被承认。 Comparison: •US•Britain •公立学校•公立学校 State schoolPublic school •私立学校•私立学校 Independent s Private school Private school Public school•Structure post-secondary/ higher educationsecondary educationelementary educationpreschool education 2.britsh education system Unit 3 British Education System I Introduction II Types of Schools III Structure of Education I Introduction 1. two education systems England, Wales & Northern Ireland: depth Scotland: breadth 2. Compulsory By law, all children in England and Wales between ages 5 -16 must receive a full-time education, while in Northern Ireland, children must begin at age 4. 3. Religious Education • Religious Education is the only compulsory subject for all schools. Historically, education was voluntary and many of the schools were set up by churches. 4. The National Curriculum (1992) • Its aim was to make sure that all pupils had a balanced education by stating the topics that should be taught and the standards to be attained by pupils. 5. Free choice Education can be provided by • state schools, • independent schools, • homeschooling. Overview of the systemOverview of the system Nursery Foundation Stage –3-4/5 Y/O education Primary Key Stage 1 –5-7 (Years 1, 2) CompulKey Stage 2 –7-11(Years 3--6)education -sory SecondaryKey Stage 3 –11-14 (Years 7–9) educationKey Stage 4 –14-16(Years 10, 11) Further Education/Key Stage 5 –16-18(Years 12,13) Sixth Form Higher beyond the age of 18education II Types of Schools ,According to levels:nursery schools primary schools secondary schools six-form colleges universities ,According to funding:state schools independent/private/public ,According to courses:comprehensive schools grammar schools State Schools ,State schools are non fee-paying, funded from taxes and most are organized by local authorities. ,Books, specialized equipment, examination fees are covered by the school. Parents are expectedto pay for their child’s school uniform. Charges may also be made for music lessons and for board and lodgings on residential trips. Public Schools(公学) ,A public school is actually a private /independent school. It’s usually prestigious and historic. Public schools charge fees and are financed by bodies other than the state, commonly as a private charitable Trust (慈善信托). State shool public school private tutors ,The term “public”historically refers to the fact that the school was open to the paying public, as opposed toprivate education at home. , Grammar Schools ,asecondary school ,selectivebecause entry is controlled by eleven plus ,offer academically orientededucation ,single sexedschools III. Structure of Education ,Nursery education ,Primary education ,Secondary education ,Further education ,Higher education 1. nursery education , B y the age of 3 or 4, many children attend nursery schools or , nursery classes attached to primary schools. Some parents prefer to send their children to private (fee-paying) nursery schools. 2. Primary education , Primary education comprises key stages 1 and 2. , Infant schools (5 to 7 Y/O) Junior schools (7 to 11 Y/O) , Primary education may also take the form of combined junior and infant schools and lasts for six years covering infant schools (2 years) and junior schools (4 years). , The majority of primary schools are state schools. A small proportion are independent schools. , Most pupils attend primary schools in their “catchment areas”, which are the areas closest to their home addresses. , Some parents choose to pay for their children to attend independent schools. National curriculum core subjects: It involves students in designing in a practical context with•English,a focus on, for example, food, textiles or digital media.•Mathematics, •Science, 信息与通讯技术•Design and Technology, •Information and Communication Technology •History, •Geography, personal, social and health •Art and design, education (PSHE), •Music, citizenship, one modern foreign language•Physical Education , •religious education. 3.Secondary education • It comprises key stages 3 and 4. Different schools provide the secondary education. E.g. comprehensive school, city Technology College, grammar school, and modern secondary school. National curriculum core subjects — 11 to 14 year olds (Key stage 3): • English, Mathematics, Science, Design and Technology, Information and Communication Technology (ICT), History, Geography, Modern foreign languages, Art and design, Music, Citizenship and Physical Education, Religious Education and Careers Education and Guidance (during Year 9), Sex and Relationship Education (SRE). . • At the age of 16, students in England, Wales and Northern Ireland take GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education) examinations. Study of GSCE subjects begins at the start of Year 10 (age 14-15), and final examinations are then taken at the end of Year 11 (age 15-16). • Students will take the following core subjects: English, Maths and Sciences (either combined or separate Biology, Chemistry and Physics). Then students typically select an additional 4 or 5subjects to take GCSEs, and they can be subjects like French, German, Business Studies, Design and Technology, Music, Sports Science, Geography, History and many other options. 4. Furter education Further Education When students have completed their GCSEs (普通中等教育证书),they have 3 options to choose from: a. Find work b. Academic Qualifications 大学学历 c. Vocational Qualifications 职业资格 • • Academic Qualifications • Some 16-year-olds continue their studies in the Sixth Form (Year 12 & Year 13) attached to their secondary schools or at a Sixth Form College that will offer the same coursesfor students at schools that do not have a 6th form. • The Sixth Form prepares pupils for a national exam called A-Level at 18. This remains the most popular route into the universities. • To gain entry to a top UK university, students generally study three or four subjects to A- • Level relevant to their chosen degree subject. There is a broad range of A-Levels for • students to choose from, including Business, Science, Arts and Humanities subjects. • From September 2000, each A-Level consists of 6 units which are studied in two stages: • Stage 1 — Advanced Subsidiary (AS) level: students will study 3 modules and upon completion they’ll be awarded an AS Level. • Stage 2 — A2 level: students will study the second set of 3 units which will take their AS level to a full A-Level. • Vocational Qualifications • For students who are not so academically minded, they can further their education by studying a vocational course that will provide them with more practical skills, such as hairdressing, typing or mechanics. • • The most popular vocation programs include: • a. BTEC (Business & Technology Education Council) Awards (商业与技术教育委员会 奖) • b. General National Vocational Qualification (GNVQ) (国家专业资格证书) comment(评价) Have a discussion on the defects of Chinese higher education Defect 1: Blind Enrollment Expansion ,Universities seem to have enrolled more than they can accommodate! ,Limited facilities & space, insufficient resources, shabby dorms (slum)… ,Expansion means a lot more! Fierce competition in the job market, Defect 2: Awkward Teaching Method ,Teachers tend to spoon-feed their students who are in turn spoon-fed and force-fed! ,More trust, freedom, interactions and responsibilities for the students! ,Teachers should serve as advisors & assistants! Defect 3: Prescribed / Designated Textbooks ,A lack of flexibility (few alternative choices) ,Outdated contents (keep pace with) ,The prescribed textbooks can be replaced by … Defect 4: Unreasonable Curriculum ,Many outdated courses should be abolished! (Marxism philosophy, Deng Xiaoping Theory, Mao Zedong Thoughts, Military Theory.) ,More utilitarian courses are welcome! (Computer Science, Business, Finance, Accounting, Law) ,One shouldn’t be confined to one’s specific field. ,Moral education is in urgent demand! (campus violence, suicide, theft, murder) Defect 5: Unfair Assessment System ,Exam-oriented style! (Scores talk!) ,Students: exams of lottery (memory test / work overtime shortly before the test) ,Teachers? How to improve it? ,It’s a time-consuming & systematic project. ,Never wait for the improvement! Get a move now! ,You and me are part of Chinese higher education! ,Try to make the best and most of the current situation! ,Stop complaining and try to make a difference from now on. Homework for Next Week ,Collect the information about the British broadcasting, newspapers and magazines to be prepared for Chapter 6 British Mass Media and chapter 7 Britain and the World. 3.values of Americans Values of the britsh Compare How to avoid culture clash 4.清教徒 请教主义 六大影响 (英国) New England today includes Massachusetts (马萨诸塞州), Connecticut (康涅狄格 州), New Hampshire (新罕布什尔州), Vermont (佛蒙特州) , Maine and Rhode Island (罗德岛州) in the Northeast of the United States. The second enduring English settlement was established in Massachusetts Bay in 1620. It was founded by English puritans who separated themselves from the Church of England. King Henry VIII cut off the political relationship with the Pope in Rome and set up the Church of England, but there was no reform in religious beliefs and practices. A group of people thought that the Church of England was too catholic and wanted to “purify” the church, hence the name “puritans”. 要求“纯洁”教会，因此才有“清教徒”之名。清教徒不仅要求英国国教在政治上割 断和罗马天主教皇的联系，而且在教义和仪式上进行改革。 The influence of Puritanism on American culture These puritans were Protestants who followed the doctrine preached by John Calvin. They had some different religious beliefs from the Catholic Church. They believed that God was incomprehensible to man, and the power of God was all-knowing, yet hidden and unknown to man, while Catholics believed that God could be reached through his representative on the earth--the Pope. Puritan salvation was different from that of Catholics. Puritans were convinced that human beings were predestined (命中注定) by God before they were born. Some were God?s chosen people while others were predestined to be damned to hell (罚入 地狱). Therefore no good works (行为，德行) could save anyone, and nobody knew if he or she was God's elect. But Catholics argued that a person could confess his or her sin, do good works and give money to the church and buy back his or her soul. They argued that everyone must read the Bible (emphasis on education ) in order to find God?s will and establish a direct contact with God ( individualism). They believed that human beings were predestined by God before they were born. Some were God?s chosen people while others were damned to hell. No church nor good works could save people. The sign of being God?s elect was the success in his work or the prosperity in his calling (职业). ------ hard-working Puritans have left rich cultural heritage to future Americans. The American values such as individualism, hard work, respect of education owe very much to the Puritan beliefs. (美国的价值观，如个人主义，勤奋工作，尊重教育等，在很大程度上源于清教 主义) Other influences of Puritanism on American culture: Americans have viewed their country as a worthy model for other nations. This sense of mission has been very strong in the minds of many Americans. They are intolerant of immoralism.They strictly punished drunks, adulterers, other religious believers different from themselves. The Puritans believed that governments should enforce God?s morality. 6.3 branches of us government Check and balance(英国) The 3 branches of the U.S federal government The legislative branch (立法机构) is made up of elected representatives from all of the states and is the only branch that can make federal laws, levy (征收) federal taxes and declare war or put foreign treaties into effect. It consists of a Congress that is divided into the House of Representatives and the Senate. The House of Representatives comprises lawmakers who serve two-year terms. Each House member represents a district in his or her home state. The number of districts in a state is determined by a count of the population taken every 10 years. (每个州选区 的多少由每隔十年一次的人口普查而决定). The most heavily populated states have more districts and, therefore, more representatives than the smaller states, some of which have only one. The Senate comprises lawmakers who serve six-year terms. Each state, regardless of population, has two senators. That assures that the small states have an equal voice in one of the houses of Congress. The terms of the senators are staggered (交错的), so that only one-third of the Senate is elected every two years. That assures that there are some experienced senators in Congress after each election. The main duty of the Congress is to make laws, including those which levy taxes that pay for the work of the federal government. A law begins as a proposal called a “bill.” It is read, studied in committees, commented (评议) on and amended (修正) in the Senate or House chamber (议院) in which it was introduced. It is then voted upon. If it passes, it is sent to the other house where a similar procedure occurs. Members of both houses work together in “conference committees” if the chambers have passed different versions (文本) of the same bill. Groups who try to persuade congressmen to vote for or against a bill are known as “lobbies” (院外游说集团). When both houses of Congress pass a bill on which they agree, it is sent to the president for his signature. Only after it is signed does the bill become a law. The executive branch (行政机构) The chief executive of the United States is the president, who, together with the vice president, is elected to a four-year term. Under a Constitutional Amendment passed in 1951, a president can be elected to only two terms. The President is both the head of state and the head of government, as well as the military commander-in-chief of the armed forces and chief diplomat. He presides over the executive branch of the federal government. Within the executive branch, the President has broad constitutional powers to issue regulations (法规) and directives (命令) regarding the work of the federal departments and he may issue executive orders to affect internal policies. The powers of the presidency are formidable (巨大的). The president, as the chief formulator of public policy, often proposes legislation to Congress. The president can also veto (否决) any bill passed by Congress. The veto can be overridden (推翻，否 决，使无效) by a 2/3 vote in both the Senate and House of Representatives. The president can appoint federal judges as vacancies occur, including members of the Supreme Court. All such court appointments are subject to (须经……同意) confirmation by the Senate. 联邦法官席位出现空缺时，总统有权任命新的法官。其中包括最高法院的大法官。 美国联邦法官是终身制。当联邦法官死亡或自愿退休时，或当他们经过合法程序 被弹劾免职时，总统有权任命新的联邦法官。 Within the executive branch, the president has broad powers to issue regulations (法 规) and directives (命令) regarding the work of the federal departments. He is the commander in chief of the armed forces. The president appoints the heads and senior officials of the executive branch agencies; the large majority of federal workers, however, are selected through a nonpolitical civil service system. 联邦政府大部分工作人员是通过非政治性的公务员制(文官)挑选出来的。 “非政治性”是指不受政党或大选的影响，不管谁当总统，他们的工作不变。 The major departments of the government are headed by appointed secretaries (部长， 秘书) who collectively make up the president's cabinet. Each appointment must be confirmed by a vote of the Senate. Today these 13 departments are: State, Treasury, Defense, Justice, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, Labor, Health and Human Services, Housing and Urban Development, Transportation, Energy and Education. 现在美国政府由13个部门组成:国务院，财政部，国防部，司法部，内政部，农 业部，商业部，劳工部，卫生部与公共服务事业部，住房部，交通部，能源部及 教育部。 Under the Constitution, the president is primarily responsible for handling foreign relations. The judicial branch (司法机构) is headed by the Supreme Court with a chief justice (首席大法官) and 8 associate justices (大法官). The Congress has established 11 federal courts of appeal (上诉) and below them, 91 federal district courts. Federal judges are appointed for life or voluntary retirement, and can only be removed from office through the process of impeachment and trial in the Congress. 国会弹劾及审判程序。当联邦法官犯有重大罪行时，他们可以被弹劾免职。其程 序是由众议院提出起诉，参议院进行审评。 The Federal courts have jurisdiction over cases arising out of the Constitution and other cases which do not arise out of individual states. (联邦法院对涉及联邦宪法的 案件有审判权) The Supreme Court consists of nine Justices: the Chief Justice of the United States and eight Associate Justices. They have equal weight when voting on a case and the Chief Justice has no casting vote (决定票) or power to instruct colleagues. The Supreme Court has the judicial review power, the power determining whether congressional legislation or executive action violates the Constitution. 重要职能包括 决定国会法案或行政法令是否违宪。这种职能被称为司法复审权。从20世纪30 年代以来，美国最高法院已多次宣布国会通过的一些法案违宪。 Checks and Balances 制约与平衡 When Americans talk about their three-part national government, they often refer to what they call its system of System “checks and balances”. This system works in many ways to keep serious mistakes from being made by one branch or another. But sometimes they do not work the way as they are supposed to work. executive legislative ,Examples: ,IfCongressproposes a law that thepresident thinks is unwise, the president can veto it. That means the proposal does not become law. Congress can enact the law despite the president's views only if two-thirds of the members of both houses vote in favor of it. legislativeexecutive judicial The presidenthas the power to make treaties with other nations and to make all appointments to federal positions, including the position of Supreme Court justice. The Senate, however, must approve all treaties and confirm all appointments before they become official. The Supreme Courtcan determine whether congressional legislation or executive action violates the Constitution. IV. the Bill of Rights (another basic foundation in the U.S Constitution ) It was adopted in 1791 and consists of 10 very short paragraphs which guarantee freedom and individual rights and forbid interference with lives of individuals by the government. Each paragraph is an Amendment to the original Constitution. In the Bill of Rights, Americans are guaranteed freedom of religion, of speech and of the press. They have the right to assemble in public places, the right to own weapons and so on. Because of the Bill of Rights, neither police nor soldiers can stop and search a person without good reason. They also can not search a person?s home without legal permission from a court. There were 16 other amendments to the Constitution as of 1991. So, there are 27 amendments to the U.S Constitution. V. Two major Political Parties To an extent quite extraordinary in democratic countries, the American political system is dominated by two political parties: the Democratic Party and the Republican Party (often known as the 'Grand Old Party' or GOP). These are very old and very stable parties - the „Democrats go back to the 1824 and the Republicans were founded in 1854. The Democratic Party is represented as a donkey, while the Republican Party is featured as an elephant. The Democratic Party, which evolved out of Thomas Jefferson?s party, formed before 1800. It is thought to be more liberal and the symbol is the donkey. Under President Franklin Roosevelt?s “New Deal”, Democrats set up government programs that provided paid employment for people building dams and roads and public buildings and Social Security (社会保障制度), which ensure that those who are retired or disabled receive monthly payments from the government. Roosevelt created the New Deal to provide relief for the unemployed, recovery of the economy, and reform of the economic and banking systems. “This great nation will endure as it has endured, will revive and will prosper. So, first of all, let me assert my firm belief that the only thing we have to fear is fear itself.” ( Inauguration Speech) Democrats regard Thomas Jefferson as the founder of the party. The Republican Party is believed to be more conservative and the symbol of the party is the elephant. Republicans place more emphasis on private enterprise (首创精神，积极性) and often accuse the Democrats of making the government too expensive and of creating too many laws that harm individual initiative. 他们更注重个人的首创精神，常常指责民主党人耗费巨资把政府搞得过于庞大， 指责他们立了许多伤害个人积极性的法律。 Americans do not have to join a political party in order to vote or to be a candidate for public office. However, running for office without the money and campaign workers a party can provide is difficult. (若没有钱和政党所能提供的选举活动者们，想要竞 选职位是很难的)