操作性条件反射

null I . Operant Conditioning: Learning About ConsequencesnullThe Law of Effect Experimental Analysis of Behavior Reinforcement Contingencies Properties of Reinforcers Schedules of Reinforcement ShapingA. The Law of EffectA. The Law of Effect Edward L.Thorndike null stimulus–response (S-R) connection blind trial and error The Law of Effect : A response that is followed by satisfying consequences becomes more probable and a response that is followed by dissatisfying consequences becomes less probable B. Experimental Analysis of BehaviorB. Experimental Analysis of Behavior B. F. Skinner An Operant is any behavior that is emitted by an organism and can be characterized in terms of the observable effects it has on the environment. nullOperant ChamberC. Reinforcement Contingencies C. Reinforcement Contingencies A reinforcement contingency is a consistent relationship between a response and the changes in the environment that it produces. Positive and Negative Reinforcers Positive and Negative Reinforcers E. g：Let the mouse learn to press lever A reinforcer is any stimulus that, when made contingent on a response, increases the probability of that response. Reinforcement is the delivery of a reinforcer following a response. nullWhen a behavior is followed by the delivery of an appetitive stimulus ,the event is called Positive Reinforcement. When a behavior is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus ,the event is called Negative Reinforcement. Operant Extinction occurs as reinforcement is withheld. null In escape conditioning, animals learn that a response will allow them to escape from an aversive stimulus. In avoidance conditioning, animals learn that a response will allow them to avoid aversive stimulus before they begin . Positive and Negative PunishmentPositive and Negative Punishment A Punisher is any stimulus that—when it is made contingent on a response—decreases the probability of that response over time. Punishment is the delivery of a punisher following a response. nullE. g: Reduce the fighting behavior of children When a behavior is followed by the delivery of an aversive stimulus, the event is called Positive Punishment . When a behavior is followed by the removal of an appetitive stimulus the event is called Negative Punishment . nullOperant Conditioning Matrixnull Reinforcement : increases the probability of a response occurring Punishment : reduces the probability of a response occurring nullDiscriminative Stimuli and GeneralizationDiscriminative Stimuli and Generalization Discriminative Stimuli, through their associations with reinforcement or punishment, come to set the context for that behavior. The Three-Term Contingency is the sequence of discriminative stimulus–behavior–consequence that Skinner believed could explain most human behavior. Organisms also generalize responses to other stimuli that resemble the discriminative stimulus. Using Reinforcement ContingenciesUsing Reinforcement Contingencies define the behavior define the discriminative stimuli the reinforcement that follows the behavior D. Properties of ReinforcersD. Properties of Reinforcers Primary reinforcers food, water Conditioned reinforcers are otherwise neutral stimuli that have, over time, become associated with primary reinforcers. Money, grades, smiles of approval, and gold stars Token economies nullnull Few primary reinforcers are available in the classroom. Conditioned reinforcers can be dispensed rapidly. Conditioned reinforcers are portable. The reinforcing effect of conditioned reinforcers may be more immediate. Response Deprivation and Positive ReinforcersResponse Deprivation and Positive ReinforcersResponse deprivation theory : Behaviors become preferred and , therefore, reinforcing when an animal is prevented from engaging in them. null You shouldn’t assume that the same activity will function as a reinforcer for an animal at all times. Virtually any activity can come to serve as a reinforcer.E. Schedules of ReinforcementE. Schedules of Reinforcement Partial Reinforcement Effect : Responses acquired under schedules of partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than those acquired with continuous reinforcement.null Fixed-Ratio Schedule (FR) Variable-Ratio Schedule (VR) Fixed-Interval Schedule (FI) Variable-Interval Schedule (VI)null Fixed-Ratio Schedule (FR): reinforcement comes after the organism has emitted a fixed number of responses. null Variable-Ratio Schedule (VR): the average number of responses between reinforcements remains predetermined. null Fixed-Interval Schedule (FI): reinforcement is delivered for the first response made after a fixed period of time. nullVariable-Interval Schedule (VI): the average time interval between reinforcements is predetermined.nullF. ShapingF. Shaping Shaping by successive approximations ： in which you reinforce any response that successively approximate and ultimately match the desired response.nullOperant ChambernullThe process of shaping : 1. Identify an appropriate behavior 2. Settle on a reinforcer 3. Select schedules of reinforcement 4. Reinforcement II . Biology and LearningII . Biology and Learning Biological constraints on learning are limitations on learning imposed by a species’ genetic endowment.A. Instinctual DriftA. Instinctual Drift Instinctual Drift is the process by which learned behavior drifts toward instinctual behavior. Keller Breland and Marion Breland B. Taste-Aversion LearningB. Taste-Aversion LearningTaste-Aversion Learning is a powerful type of teaming that is learned through only one pairing of a CS (the flavor) and its consequences (the illness). Join Garcia and Robert Koelling nullSweet water noise light plain waterelectric shocks (pain)X-ray radiation (nausea ,illness)electric shocks (pain) X-ray radiation (nausea ,illness) 100ml23ml 21ml 98mlnullRadiationShockBright-noise waterSaccharine waterPercentage of normal fluid intake nullCognitive Influences on Learning Cognitive Influences on Learning Animal Cognition Observational Learning A. Animal CognitionA. Animal Cognition Cognitive maps are internal representations of the physical characteristics of the external environment. Tolamn 1948 nullnullSpatial cognitive maps can be used to: 1. Recognize and identify features in the environment 2. Find important goal objects in the environment 3. Plan an efficient route through the environment null Conceptual Behavior: the cognitive ability to make conceptual distinctions and to generalize about new concepts and categories, is found is some animals as well as in humans. Edward 1922 nullororTraining stage 1stimuliresponsenullTraining Stage 2stimuliresponsenullExamination stage stimuliresponseB. Observational LearningB. Observational LearningObservational learning: the individual, after simply watching another person exhibiting behavior that was reinforced or punished , later behaves in much the same way , or refrains from doing so. Albert BanduranullA model’s observed behavior is most influential when: 1. It is seen as having reinforcing consequences. 2. The model is liked, respected, and perceived positively. 3. There are perceived similarities between the model and the observer. 4. The observer is rewarded for paying attention to the model’s behavior. 5. The model’s behavior is visible and salient. 6. It is within the observer’s range of competence to imitate the behavior. nullVicarious reinforcementCognitive mapnullClassical conditioning punishmentnull