英语语法学习

英语语法学习 第一部分 英语语法结构图 名词 代词 数词 冠词 介词 词性(9种) 连词 形容词 谓语动词 不定式 副词 分词 非谓语动词 动词 动名词 助动词与情态动词 词法 时态(16种) 时态与语态 语态 虚拟语气 简单句 并列句 3:三类句子 定语从句 语法 复合句 状语从句 名词性从句 一般规则 6:六种简单句句子 9:九种句子成分 句法 倒装 比较 特殊规则 反义疑问句 第二部分 词法 第一节 词性 一、副词 (一) 概念 副词(Adverb)是指在句子中表示行为或状态特征的词，用以修饰动词、形容词、其他 副词或全句，表示时间、地点、程度、方式等概念。 (二) 副词的位置 1、一般规则 副词一般放在be动词、助动词或情态动词之后，实义动词之前。 如果实义动词后有 宾语，则放于宾语之后。 I am also Bush. 我也是布什。 I can also do that. 我也可以这样做。 I also want to play that games. 我也想玩这游戏。 She didn't drink water enough. 她没有喝足够的水 。 I have seen this film twice with my friends. 这部电影我和朋友看过两次。 、简化结构中副词位置的变化 2 (1) be动词 简化前: He is really nice. 简化后: He really is. (2) 助动词 简化前: He can hardly do it. 简化后: He hardly can. 3、状态副词在被动语态中的位置 表示状态的副词在被动语态中，要置于过去分词前。 主动语态:He did the job well. 被动语态:The job was well done. 4、时间副词和地点副词在一个句中，地点副词在前面，时间副词在后面。 We went shopping in the supermarket at 9 o'clock yesterday. 5、副词修饰形容词、副词时，一般放在被修饰词之前，但enough除外。 It's rather easy, I can do it. He didn't run fast enough to catch the train. 6、句子要部分倒装。 Never have I felt so excited! (三) 重要的副词用法 1、very,much的用法 (1)very可修饰一般形容词或副词，但形容词或副词变成比较级时，则只能用much 修饰。 He walked very slowly. He walked much more slowly than I (2) 修饰too时只能用much，不能用very。 He is much too young. 注: 修饰比较级或too的副词通常有六个:much,far,a lot,a great deal, still, even. 2、little、a little (1) little做副词时，视为否定副词，译为“一点儿都不”，等于no; The patient’s condition is little better than yesterday. 病人的情况并没有比昨天好到哪里去 (2) a little做副词时，译为“有点儿” 3、sometimes、sometime (1) sometimes 有时候 Sometimes he comes here for a visit. (2) sometime 某时 可用于一般过去时或一般将来时，使用时通常与另一明确的时间副词或副词短语连用。 I saw him sometime yesterday morning. 4、ago、before (1) ago表“距现在若干时间以前”，时态用一般过去时，须与具体时间连用。 He came here a few days ago. (2) before表“距过去某时若干时间以前”，时态用一般过去时或过去完成时，可单 独使用。 I have met him before. 5、since、after 1) Since可做副词连词，连接状语从句:I have studied English since I moved here in ( 2001. Since可做副词用，修饰主句，译为“从那时候起”，句型结构一定为:He left town in 2002 and I haven’t seen him since. Since可做介词用，之后加明确的时间名词作宾语:I have been studying English since 2002./ I have been studying English for ten years. (2) since之前可以用ever修饰，用于加强语气 Ever since he came here, he has been arguing with Mary. (3) after做副词时，译为“之后”，与since不同的是，since修饰完成时，after修饰 过去时，等于later或afterwards He fell ill on Monday and died three days after. 6、someday、the other day、some other day (1) someday表示将来有一天，用于将来时。 Keep on working hard, and somehow you’ll be successful. (2) the other day 表示前些时候，用于过去时 I went to the National Park for a visit the other day. (3) some other day 改天，用于将来时 I will visit you some other day. 7、somewhat、somehow、anyhow (1)somewhat 有一点儿 It’s somewhat cold today. (2)somehow 不知怎么的/设法 He is nice; but somehow I don’t like him. We must find the money somehow. (3) anyhow 况且/不管如何 I don’t have time to go to the movies; they’re too expensive anyhow. Anyhow, we can try. 8、Short Response 简应句 (1) 肯定句用so或too，其中so需要倒装 He is nice, and so is she. He is nice, and she is, too (2) 否定句用neither或either，其中neither需要倒装 He isn’t nice, and neither is she. He isn’t nice, and she is ,either. 9、more than 与倍数的关系 More than 应置于倍数之前:He has more than three times as much money as you do. 10、避免双重否定 (1) never 不能再与否定词共用 He hasn’t never been to Japan before (×) He has never been to Japan before He hasn’t ever been to Japan before (2) scarcely/hardly/almost not 为否定副词，译为“几乎不”，不可再与no 或not连 用，但可以与any连用 He has hardly no money (×) He has hardly any money. 11、在think、hope、believe、be afraid、imagine等动词后面加so，可代替肯定句，加 not代替否定句 A: Is he nice? B: yes, I think so. No, I think not. 12、容易混淆的副词 (1) most(最)、mostly(大部分) (2) near(近)、nearly(几乎，=almost) He lives near, not far He was nearly drowned 二、动词 (一) 谓语动词 谓语动词指的是在句子中可以单独作谓语的动词，主要由实意动词充当。主要划分为 完全不及物动词、不完全不及物动词、完全及物动词、不完全及物动词和授予动词。 1、完全不及物动词 完全不及物动词，就是意思很完全的不及物动词，这类动词位于主语之后，可以单独存 在，之后不须加任何词类意思就很完全。如 Something happened. He died 在完全不及物动词之后，可接副词或副词对等语(如介词短语、状语从句等)，以修饰 该动词。 Something happened yesterday. He died in an accident. He left because he didn’t want to see Mary again. 不及物动词无被动语态。 2、不完全不及物动词(亦称系动词) 这类动词意思不完全，因而无法单独存在，之后要接名词、形容词或名词对等语，以补 充其意思的不足，我们称为表语。 (1) be 动词 Be 动词之后可用名词(含名词对等语，如名词性从句、名词短语、动名词、不定式等) 或形容词(含作形容词的现在分词、过去分词、介词短语)和副词(地点副词或地点副词短 语等)作表语。 Be 动词后面有是一种表语: 表语种类 表语种类 例句 名词 He is a great hero. The trouble with me is that I lack money. 名词性从句 The problem is whether he can join us. 名词或名词The question is what he is doing? 对等语 名词短语 The question is when to set out? 动名词短语 My hobby is collection stamps. 不定式短语 My purpose here is to see him. 形容词 She is beautiful. 作形容词用The story is interesting. 的现在分词 形容词或形作形容词用I am interested in the story 容词对等语 的过去分词 作形容词用此类介词短语由“of + 抽象名词” 的介词短语 The book is of great value.= The book is valuable. 地点副词 She is there. 副词或本短语由“介词 + 地方名词” 地点副词短副词对等语 She is in town. 语 They are at home. (2) become(变成) Become 可用任何名词、形容词或可作形容词用的现在分词或过去分词作表语。 He became angry. You’ll become a good student if you study hard (3) turn(变成) Turn 通常只用形容词作表语，而且所能使用的形容词多与颜色或情绪有关 The leaves were turning yellow. (4) get(变成) Get 通常表“生气”或“激动”的形容词作表语。若用其他形容词时，宜用become。 He got mad. 若get用于进行时的结构中，之后可接任何形容词的比较级形态作表语。 She is getting more and more beautiful. (5) seem(似乎)= appear Seem 之后用不定式短语作表语 He seems to know it. 但在seem to be + 名词/形容词结构中，to be可以省略，直接用名词或形容词作表语。 He seems to be happy. = He seems happy. (6) 感官动词 感官动词一共有五个，分别为look, sound, smell, taste, feel，一律译成“„„起来”，后 面一律用形容词作表语。 His idea sounds good. I feel tired. 感官动词后绝不可用名词作表语，若要与名词连用时，感官动词后要加like: It sounds like a good idea. 3、完全及物动词 完全及物动词是加了宾语后意思才完全的动词，有主动和被动两个语态。 4、不完全及物动词 不完全及物动词是加了宾语后意思还不完全的动词，需要在宾语后面添加宾补成分。 (1) 使役动词 种类 动词 用法 例句 Make/have + 宾语 + 原形动Make I made him wash the car. 叫„„ 词 Have I had John report to me. Get Get sb to do I got him to wash the car. Let + 宾语 + 原形动词 I let him wash the car. 让„„ Let + 宾语 + 作副词用的介Let I let him in. 词(in、out、down) Force I forced him to recite the lesson. 强迫/要Ask I asked him to write the letter. 此类动词 + 宾语 + 不定求/怂恿/Compel He compelled me to do that. 式 催促„„ Push I pushed her to be in charge of the Encourage work. 使„„成His teacher make him a good Make + 宾语 + 形容词/名词 Make 为 student. (2) 知觉动词 此类动词有三类: 看: see, observe, watch, look at, notice. 听: hear, listen to 感觉: feel 此类动词可以做完全及物动词，也可以做完全不及物动词 A)表事实时，用原形动作作补语，译成“„„了” I saw him dance. 我看见他跳舞了。 B)表进行状态时，用现在分词作补语，译成“„„正在„„” I saw him dancing when I walked in. 我进来的时候，看见他正在跳舞。 C) 表被动语态时，用过去分词，译成“„„被„„” I saw him killed. I heard the door closed. I feel myself lifted. (3) 任命动词 此类动词多表“选举”、“指派”之意，其宾语后面接表职位的名词作补语，通常该职位名词之前要省略冠词。此类动词常有: elect, assign, appoint: I was appointed director of claim and recovery division. My boss appoint me director of claim and recovery division. (4) 认定动词 此类动词均表“视„„为”之意，常有:regard, think of, see, view, think, believe, deem, consider等。 (5) 转变动词 此类动词均表“使„„变成„„”，常用的有change与turn两个，通常要与介词into连用: The experience turned/changed him into a good student. (6) 其他重要的不完全及物动词 Set: 将„„置于„„:They set him free. Paint: 将„„涂成„„:They painted the door green. Name: 给„„取名„„: They named the baby Tom. 5、授予动词 授予动词是接了两个宾语的及物动词，第一个宾语叫间接宾语，表授予的对象;第二个宾语叫直接宾语，表授予的东西。常见的授予动词有give, buy, ask, offer等 I will give you this watch. 其中you为间接宾语，this watch为直接宾语。 (1) 间接宾语与直接宾语倒置原则 A)表“给予”的概念，要用to I gave him the book = I gave the book to him. B)表“代劳”的概念，要用for I bought him the book = I bought the book for him. C)表“从„„中”的概念，要用of He required me nothing = He required nothing of me. (2) 与of连用的授予动词 以下授予动词均与of连用，即在直接宾语前要加of Rob / Deprive / Relieve / Rid / Break / Cure I cannot rid myself of the painful memory. (二) 非谓语动词 非谓语动词是指在句子中不是谓语的动词，主要包括不定式、动名词和分词(现在分词和过去分词)，即动词的非谓语形式。非谓语动词除了不能独立作谓语外，可以承担句子的其他成分。 非谓语动词使用条件:一个句子当中，已经存在一个主句(谓语动词)，又没有连词的情况下, 还有别的动词出现时，就需要使用非谓语动词。 非谓语动词的句法功能: 主语 宾语 定语 状语 宾语补足语 表语 同位语 不定式 ? ? ? ? ? ? 动名词 ? ? ? ? ? ? 分词 ? ? ? ? 1、不定式 动词不定式:(to)+ do，具有名词、形容词、副词的特征。 否定式:not + (to) do (1)不定式不同时态与谓语的先后关系 A)一般式:不定式的一般式所表示的动作与谓语动词动作同时发生或发生在谓语动词动作之后. 例如: It's nice to meet you.很高兴见到你。 He seems to know a lot. 他看起来懂得很多。 We plan to pay a visit. 我们计划去参观。 He wants to be an artist. 他想成为一个艺术家。 The patient asked to be operated on at once. 病人要求马上手术。 The teacher ordered the work to be done. 老师要求完成工作。 B)进行式:不定式的进行式所表示的动作与谓语动词动作同时发生，例如: The boy pretended to be working hard. 男孩假装工作得很努力。 He seems to be reading in his room. 看起来他正在他的房间里面读书。 C)完成式:不定式的完成式表示的动作发生在谓语动词动作之前，例如: I regretted to have told a lie. 我后悔我说谎了。 I happened to have seen the film. 我偶然看过这部电影。 He is pleased to have met his friend. 他很高兴能遇上他的朋友。 (2) 不定式的句法功能: A)作主语: To finish the work in ten minutes is very hard. 十分钟之内完成这项工作是很难的。 To lose your heart means failure. 灰心意味着失败。 动词不定式短语作主语时，常用it作形式主语，真正的主语不定式置于句后，例如上面两句可用如下形式: It is very hard to finish the work in ten minutes. 十分钟之内完成这项工作是很难的。 It means failure to lose your heart. 灰心意味着失败。 常用句式有: It+be+名词+to do It takes sb.+some time+to do It+be+形容词+of sb +to do。常用careless, clever, good, foolish, honest, kind, lazy, nice, right, silly, stupid, wise等表示赞扬或批评的形容词。 It is very clever of him to finish the hard task. B)作表语: Her job is to clean the hall. 她的工作是打扫大厅。 He appears to have caught a cold. 他似乎感冒了。 C) 作宾语: 常与不定式做宾语连用的动词有:want, hope, wish, offer, fail, plan, learn, pretend, refuse, manage, help, agree, promise, prefer。如果不定式(宾语)后面有宾语补足语，则用it作形式宾语，真正的宾语(不定式)后置，放在宾语补足语后面，例如: Marx found it important to study the situation in Russia. 马克思发现研究俄国的情况是很重要的。 D)作宾语补足语: 在复合宾语中，动词不定式可充当宾语补足语，如下动词常跟这种复合宾语:want, wish, ask, tell, order, beg, permit, help, advise, persuade, allow, prepare, cause, force, call on, wait for, invite。 E)作定语: 动词不定式作定语，放在所修饰的名词或代词后。与所修饰名词有如下关系: ? 动宾关系: I have a meeting to attend. 我有一个会议要出席。 注意:不定式为不及物动词时，所修饰的名词如果是地点、工具等，应有必要的介词， 如: He found a good house to live in. 他找到了一个居住的好房子。 The child has nothing to worry about. 这个孩子无忧无虑。 What did you open it with? 你用什么打开它, 如果不定式修饰time,place,way，可以省略介词: He has no place to live. 他无处安身。 This is the best way to work out this problem. 这是解决这个问题的最好办法。 如果不定式所修饰名词是不定式动作承受者，不定式可用主动式也可用被动式: Have you got anything to send? 你要送什么东西吗, Have you got anything to be sent? 你有什么东西需要送吗, ?说明所修饰名词的内容: We have made a plan to finish the work. 我们制定了一个完成工作的计划。 ?被修饰名词是不定式逻辑主语: He is the first to get here. 他第一个来到这儿。 F)作状语: 表目的 ? He worked day and night to get the money. 他夜以继日地工作来赚钱。 She sold her hair to buy the watch chain. 她卖掉了自己的头发来买那条表链。 注意不定式放句首时，逻辑主语与句子主语要一致: wrong:To save money,every means has been tried. right:To save money,he has tried every means. 为了省钱，他使出了浑身解数。 wrong:To learn English well,a dictionary is needed. right:To learn English well,he needs a dictionary. 为了学好英语，他需要一本词典。 ? 表结果(往往是与预期愿望相反的结果 意料之外):常放在never only后 He arrived late only to find the train had gone. 他来晚了，只见火车已经走了。 I visited him only to find him out. 我去拜访他，只见他出去了。 ? 表原因:常放在形容词后面 They were very sad to hear the news. 他们听到这条新闻非常伤心。 ? 表程度 It's too dark for us to see anything. 太暗了，我们什么也看不见。 The question is simple for him to answer. 这问题由他来回答是很简单的。 2、动名词 动名词既具有动词的一些特征，又具有名词的句法功能。 动名词的形式:Ving 否定式:not + 动名词 (1) 动名词的时态和语态 A) 一般式: Seeing is believing. 眼见为实。 B) 被动式: He came to the party without being invited(他未被邀请就来到了晚会。 C) 完成式: We remembered having seen the film. 我们记得看过这部电影。 D) 完成被动式: He forgot having been taken to Guangzhou when he was five years old. 他忘记五岁时曾被带到广州去过。 E) 否定式:not + 动名词 I regret not following his advice. 我后悔没听他的劝告。 F) 复合结构:物主代词(或名词所有格)+ 动名词 He suggested our trying it once again. 他建议我们再试一次。 His not knowing English troubled him a lot.他不懂英语给他带来许多麻烦。 (2)动名词的句法功能: A)作主语: Reading aloud is very helpful. 朗读是很有好处的。 Collecting stamps is interesting. 集邮很有趣。 当动名词短语作主语时常用it作形式主语。 It's no use quarrelling.争吵是没用的。 B) 作表语: In the ant city,the queen's job is laying eggs. 在蚂蚁王国，蚁后的工作是产卵。 C) 作宾语: They haven't finished building the dam. 他们还没有建好大坝。 We have to prevent the air from being polluted. 我们必须阻止空气被污染。 注意动名词既可作动词宾语也可作介词宾语，如上面两个例句。此外，动名词作宾语 时，若跟有宾语补足语，则常用形式宾语it，例如: We found it no good making fun of others. 我们发现取笑他人不好。 D) 要记住如下动词及短语只跟动名词作宾语: enjoy,finish,suggest,avoid(避免)，excuse,delay,imagine,keep,miss,consider,admit(承认)， deny(否认)，mind,permit,forbid,practise,risk(冒险)，appreciate(感激)，be busy,be worth,feel like,can't stand,can't help(情不自禁地)，think of,dream of,be fond of,prevent„(from),keep „ from,stop„(from)，protect„from,set about,be engaged in,spend„(in),succeed in,be used to,look forward to,object to,pay attention to,insist on,feel like E) 作定语: He can't walk without a walking-stick. 他没有拐杖不能走路。 Is there a swimming pool in your school? 你们学校有游泳池吗, F) 作同位语: The cave,his hiding-place is secret. 那个山洞，他藏身的地方很秘密。 His habit,listening to the news on the radio remains unchanged( 他收听收音机新闻节目的习惯仍未改变。 3、现在分词 现在分词既具有动词的一些特征，又具有形容词和副词的句法功能。 现在分词的否定式:not + 现在分词 (1) 现在分词的语态和时态 A) 现在分词的主动语态:现在分词主动语态的一般式表示与谓语动词所表示的动作同 时发生，完成式表示的动作在谓语动词所表示的动作之前发生，常作状语。例如: They went to the park,singing and talking. 他们边唱边说向公园走去。 Having done his homework,he played basket-ball. 做完作业，他开始打篮球。 B) 现在分词的被动语态:一般式表示与谓语动词同时发生的被动的动作，完成式表示 发生在谓语动词之前的被动的动作。 The problem being discussed is very important. 正在被讨论的问题很重要。 Having been told many times,the naughty boy made the same mistake. 被告诉了好几遍，这个淘气的孩子又犯了同一个错误。 (2) 现在分词的句法功能: A) 作定语:现在分词作定语，当分词单独做定语时，放在所修饰的名词前;如果是分 词短语做定语放在名词后。 In the following years he worked even harder. 在后来的几年中，他学习更努力了。 The man speaking to the teacher is our monitor's father. 正与老师谈话的那个人是我们班长的父亲。 现在分词作定语相当于一个定语从句的句法功能，如:in the following years也可用in the years that followed; the man speaking to the teacher可改为the man who is speaking to the teacher. B) 现在分词作表语: The film being shown in the cinema is exciting. 正在这家上演的电影很棒。 The present situation is inspiring. 当前的形势鼓舞人心。 be + doing既可能表示现在进行时，也可能是现在分词做表语，它们的区别在于be + doing表示进行的动作是进行时，而表示特征时是系动词be与现在分词构成系表结构。 C) 作宾语补足语: 如下动词后可跟现在分词作宾语补足语: see,watch,hear,feel,find,get,keep,notice,observe,listen to,look at,leave,catch等。例如: Can you hear her singing the song in the next room? 你能听见她在隔壁唱歌吗, He kept the car waiting at the gate. 他让小汽车在门口等着。 D)(现在分词作状语: ?作时间状语: (While) Working in the factory,he was an advanced worker. 在工厂工作时，他是一名先进工人。 ?作原因状语: Being a League member,he is always helping others. 由于是共青团员，他经常帮助他人。 ?作方式状语，表示伴随: He stayed at home,cleaning and washing. 他呆在家里，又擦又洗。 ?作条件状语: (If) Playing all day,you will waste your valuable time. 要是整天玩，你就会浪费宝贵的时间。 ?作结果状语: He dropped the glass,breaking it into pieces. 他把杯子掉了，结果摔得粉碎。 ?作目的状语: He went swimming the other day. 几天前他去游泳了。 ?作让步状语: Though raining heavily,it cleared up very soon. 虽然雨下得很大，但不久天就晴了。 ?与逻辑主语构成独立主格: I waiting for the bus,a bird fell on my head( 我等汽车时，一只鸟落到我头上。 All the tickets having been sold out,they went away disappointedly. 所有的票已经卖光了，他们失望地离开了。 Time permitting,we'll do another two exercises. 如果时间允许，我们将做另两个练习。 有时也可用with (without) +名词(代词宾格)+分词形式 With the lights burning,he fell asleep. 他点着灯睡着了。 ?作独立成分: Judging from(by) his appearance,he must be an actor. 从外表看，他一定是个演员。 Generally speaking,girls are more careful. 一般说来，女孩子更细心。 4、过去分词 过去分词只有一种形式:规则动词由动词原形加词尾-ed构成。不规则动词的过去分词 没有统一的规则要求，要一一记住。 A) 过去分词作定语: Our class went on an organized trip last Monday. 上周一我们班开展了一次有组织的旅 行。 Those selected as committee members will attend the meeting. 当选为委员的人将出席这 次会。 注意当过去分词是单词时，一般用于名词前，如果是过去分词短语，就放在名词的后面。 过去分词做 定语相当于一个被动语态的定语从句。 B) 过去分词作表语: The window is broken. 窗户破了。 They were frightened at the sad sight. 他们对眼前悲惨的景象感到很害怕。 注意:be + 过去分词，如果表示状态是系表结构，如果表示被动的动作是被动语态。 区别: The window is broken.(系表) The window was broken by the boy.(被动) 有些过去分词是不及物动词构成的，不表示被动，只表示完成。如: boiled water(开水) fallen leaves(落叶) newly arrived goods(新到的货) the risen sun(升起的太阳) the changed world(变了的世界) 这类过去分词有:gone,come,fallen,risen,changed,arrived,returned,passed等。 C) 过去分词作宾语补足语: I heard the song sung several times last week. 上周我听见这首歌被唱了好几次。 有时过去分词做with短语中的宾语补足语: With the work done,they went out to play. 工作做完了，他们出去玩去了。 D) 过去分词作状语: Praised by the neighbors,he became the pride of his parents. 受到邻居们的表扬，他成为父母的骄傲。(表示原因) Once seen,it can never be forgotten. 一旦它被看见，人们就忘不了。(表示时间) Given more time,I'll be able to do it better. 如果给予更多的时间，我能做得更好。(表示条件) Though told of the danger,he still risked his life to save the boy. 虽然被告之有危险，他仍然冒生命危险去救那个孩子。(表示让步) Filled with hopes and fears,he entered the cave. 心中充满了希望与恐惧，他走进山洞。 5、动名词与现在分词的区别 动名词它在形式上与现在分词相同,都是在动词原形的词末加-ing.在现代语法中,这两种形式同视为"-ing形式".这两种形式的另一个相同之处是:它们都是由动词变化而成的,它们都保留了动词的某些特征,它们都能带自己的宾语、状语,而构成动名词短语或是现在分词短语去担当句子成分.例如: Speaking in the public ,he will surely be very cheerful . (现在分词短语,作状语)他在公众场所讲话时总是兴高采烈的. She hates speaking in the public. (动名词短语,作宾语)她不喜欢在公众场所讲话. 区别: 1) 动名词和现在分词都可以用于系动词之后作表语,区别方法是: ( ?作表语的动名词与主语指的是同一件事,此时系动词相当于“是”,通常把主语和表语的位置互换,语法和意思不变,例如: My hobby is swimming.可改为Swimming is my hobby.(可将原句中的主语与表语位置互换) ?现在分词作表语主要用以说明主语的性质,不能与主语互换位置,例如: The story is interesting .不可改为:Interesting is the story. (2)动名词和现在分词都可以用作定语来修饰名词,两者的区别在于: 动名词修饰名词时主要表示该名词的用途,而现在分词修饰名词时性质,状态或动作等:试比较: ?a swimming boy和a swimming suit 前者的意思是“一个正在游泳的男孩”,即a boy who is swimming ,现在分词swimming 表示被修饰名词boy的动作;而后者的意思是“游泳衣”,即a suit for swimming ,动名词swimming表示suit 的用途: ?a sleeping child 和 a sleeping car 前者的意思是“一个正在睡觉的孩子”,即a child who is sleeping ,现在分词sleeping 表示被修饰名词 child 正处于的状态;而后者的意思是“卧车(被用来睡觉的车厢)”,即 a car which is used for sleeping ,动名词 sleeping 表示car 的用途: (三) 助动词及情态动词 1、概念 协助主要动词构成谓语的词叫助动词(Auxiliary Verb)。被协助的动词称作主要动词(Main Verb)。助动词用来构成时态和语态。 助动词具有语法意义，但没有词汇意义，不可单独作谓语。 情态动词(Modal verbs)本身有一定的词义，表示语气的单词。但是不能独立作谓语， 只能和动词原形一起构成谓语。情态动词用在行为动词前，表示说话人对这一动作或状态的 看法或主观设想。 情态动词虽然数量不多，但用途广泛，主要有下列: can (could), may (might), must, need, ought to, dare (dared), shall (should), will (would) must not. 基本助动词:基本助动词只有三个:be, do, have, 它们没有词汇意义，只有语法作用， 如协助构成进行体，完成体，被动态，否定句，疑问句等。 2、助动词的用途 1) 表示时态，例如: ( He is singing. 他在唱歌。 He has got married. 他已结婚。 (2) 表示语态，例如: He was sent to England. 他被派往英国。 (3) 构成疑问句，例如: Do you like college life? 你喜欢大学生活吗, Did you study English before you came here? 你来这儿之前学过英语吗, (4) 与否定副词not合用，构成否定句，例如: I don't like him. 我不喜欢他。 (5) 加强语气，例如: Do come to the party tomorrow evening. 明天晚上一定来参加晚会。 He did know that. 他的确知道那件事。 3、be的用法 be+动词不定式 (1)表示最近、未来的计划或安排。如: He is to go to New York next week. 他下周要去纽约。 We are to teach the fresh persons. 我们要教新生。 但应注意:这种用法也可以说是一种将来时态的表达法。 (2)表示命令。如: You are to explain this. 对此你要作出解释。 He is to come to the office this afternoon. 他今天下午要来办公室。 (3)表示征求意见。如: How am I to answer him? 我该怎样答复他, Who is to go there? 谁该去那儿呢, (4)表示相约、商定。如: We are to meet at the school gate at seven tomorrow morning. 我们明天早晨7点在校门口集合。 4、have的用法 5、do的用法 6、shall和will的用法 shall和will作为助动词可以与动词原形一起构成一般将来时，例如: I shall study harder at English. 我将更加努力地学习英语。 He will go to Shanghai. 他要去上海。 7、should和would的用法 (1)should无词义，只是shall的过去形式，与动词原形构成过去将来时，只用于第一 人称，例如: I telephoned him yesterday to ask what I should do next week. 我昨天给他打电话，问他我下周干什么。 比较: "What shall I do next week?" I asked. "我下周干什么,"我问道。(可以说，shall变成直接引语时，变成了should。) (2) would也无词义，是will的过去形式，与动词原形构成过去将来时，用于第二、 第三人称，例如: He said he would come. 他说他要来。 比较: "I will go," he said. 他说:"我要去那儿。" 变成间接引语，就成了: He said he would come. 原来的will变成would，go变成了come.。过去式从原来的go变为came。 (3) would，should，could，might 无词义，与动词的原型构成虚拟语气。如: We would have finished our paper if we had been given five more minutes. 假如再有5分钟，我们就答完试卷了。 (4) would rather + 动词原形 宁愿„„ I would rather go than stay here. 8、can和could的用法 (1) can有以下意思和用法: A)表示“能力”(= be able to)，译成“能够” He can cope with the problem. B)表示“可能性”，译成“有可能” He can be wrong to say so. C)表示“许可”(= may)，译成“可以” You can go home now. (2)could与would一样，可以使用在问句中，以表示客气的语气。 Could you please do it for me? 9、may和might (1) may之后接原形动词，有以下意思: A) 表“许可”，译成“可以” You may take whatever you like. B)表“推测”，译成“可能” It may be true. (2) may的惯用语 A)may well + 原形动词 大可/足可以„„ He knows so many things that he may well be called a genius. B) may as well + 原形动词 不妨„„(语气缓和) 比较 Had better + 原形动词 最好„„(语气较强) You may as well stay home. You had better stay home. C) may as well + 原形动词 + as + 原形动词 与其„„倒不如„„ You may as well stay home as go out with them. You might as well die as make friends with him.(表较小的可能性) 10、must(= have to) 在口语中，have to 经常被have got to 或 gotta取代 I have to tell you the truth. I have got to tell you the truth. I gotta tell you the truth. 11、ought to 、need 12 在肯定句中，need为一般动词，同样具有人称及时态的变化，译成“必须”或“需要”，之后接不定式短语或名称做宾语。 在否定句中，need与not连用，此时need为助动词。 13、dare 14、used to 三、代词 (一) 概念 代词是代替名词或一句话的一种词类。大多数代词具有名词和形容词的功能。英语中的代词，按其意义、特征及在句中的作用分为:人称代词、物主代词、指示代词、反身代词、相互代词、疑问代词、关系代词、连接代词和不定代词九种。 1、人称代词 主格:I我 you你 he他 she她 they他们 we我们 宾格:me我 you你 him他 her她 them他们 us我们 、物主代词 my我的 his他的 your你的(your你们的) their他们的 her她的 2 3、指示代词 this这 that那 these这些 those 那些 4、反身代词myself我自己 himself他自己 themselves他们自己 5、疑问代词who谁 what什么 which哪个 6、不定代词some一些 many许多 both两个;两个都 either 两者之一 neither 两者都不 any 三者或以上任一 none 三者或以上都不 all 三者或以上都 7、关系代词which„„的物 who„„的人 that„„的人或物 who谁 that引导定语从句 8、相互代词 each other 两者互相 one another三者或以上互相 9、连接代词 who,whom,whose,what,which,whatever,whichever,whoever,whomever (二) 人称代词 (三) it的强调用法 1、强调主语或宾语 I love him It is I who love him 2、强调介词短语或状语冲击 It was in 1974 that I began to study English (三) 不定代词的用法 1、 each other 与 one another The two students like each other.(两者彼此) The five students hate one another. (三者或三者以上彼此) 2、one after the other 与 one after another He raised his hands one after the other.(两者相继地) All the students came in one after another.(三者或三者以上相继地) 3、either、neither、both、all、any、none I don’t care whether you serve coffee or tea; either will do.(两者中任一) I don’t like any of the four chairs.(三者或以上任一) Neither of the two books is good.(两者中都不) None of the three students is diligent.(三者或以上都不) Both of the two students are lazy.(两者中都是) All of the five apples are rotten.(三者或以上都是) 四、介词 (一) 概念 介词(preposition 简写prep.)又称作前置词，表示名词、代词等与句中其他词的关系，在句中不能单独作句子成分。介词后面一般有名词、代词或相当于名词的其他词类、短语或从句作它的宾语，表示与其他成分的关系。介词和它的宾语构成介词词组，在句中作状语，表语，补语，定语或介词宾语。介词可以分为时间介词、地点介词、方式介词、原因介词、数量介词和其他介词。 1、简单介词 包括in,on,with,by,for,at,about,under,of等。 2、合成介词 包括into,within,throughout,inside,outside,without等 3、重叠介词 包括from among从...当中，from behind从...后面，until after直至...之后，at about在大约...，after about在大约...之后等 4、短语介词 一个或两个简单介词和一个或几个其他词类构成一个短语，作用相当于一个介词，这就叫做介词短语。这类介词的末尾总是一个简单介词，如according to,because of,by means of,in addition to,in front of, in spite of,into等。 5、分词介词 有极少数介词的词尾是“-ing”，形似现在分词(其中也有些可做分词)。常用的有:considering,regarding,respecting,including。 (二) 主要介词的使用方法 1、at (1)at + 建筑物:在建筑物 (2)at + 人:朝某人 laugh at sb. (3)at + work/ church/scholl/rest:从事某活动 (4)at + price/age/speed:以什么价格/年龄/速度进行 2、by (1)在„„旁边:by the window 2)经过: pass by my house ( (3)表差距:be older than sb. by two years。 (4)按照: sell eggs by the dozen (5)by + 时间:最迟不超过某时间:come back by ten 3、for (1) 表赞成:Are you for his idea? (2) 表“当作”:I took John for a girl because he wears long hair. (3) 表“持续一段时间”:I have learned Japanese for three years. (4) 表“以„„价格”:I bought the book for only $10. 4、to (1) 表“配合(音乐、曲调、节拍等)”dance to the music (2) be up to + 事表“从事某事”:What are you up to? 5、behind、after Behind表静态的:He is sitting behind me. After表动态的: He is chasing after Mary. 6、into Run into 表示与某人巧遇: I ran into an old friend on the street yesterday. Be into 表热衷于„„: He is into classical music. 7、without It goes without saying + that 从句: 不用说，„„ It goes without saying that money can’t buy everything. 8、over 与咖啡、茶、三餐等连用，表“吃/喝„„了一段时间”，常与talk连用 We talked over a cup of tea. 9、beneath It is beneath sb. To + 原形动词:从事„„有失某人的身份 It is beneath you to do this kind of thing. 10、through Through the day/night 一整个白天/晚上 He wandered around on the street through the day. 五、复合形容词(形容词) 复合形容词就是两个以上的词加连字符形成的形容词，通常有以下几种: 1、数词+名词 five-year plan 此种复合形容词中，无论数词是否是单数，后面的名词均采用单数。 2、数词+名词+形容词 A five-years-old boy 此种复合形容词仅限于与年龄有关的形容词中，如果数词是复数，则中间的名词应用复 数。 3、名词+现在分词 Man-eating animal A heart-breaking girl:会伤人的女孩 此种复合形容词中，名词一定为单数。 4、副词+现在分词 A low-lying area 5、名词+过去分词 A heart-broken girl:心碎的女孩 6、形容词+名词变成的过去分词 Kind-hearted Big-eyed One-legged 此类复合形容词均与身体部位的器官或组织有关 7、well/ill + 过去分词 Well-mannered Ill-considered 第二节 时态及语态 一、时态 (一) 时态的种类 1、16种时态 一般时 进行时 完成时 完成进行时 表示已经完成的表示从某一时间开始， 表示经常发生的表示正在进行的且对现在有影响一直持续到现在，或者 动作或某种状态 动作 动作或一直持续刚刚终止，或者可能仍 的动作 然要继续下去的动作 现在状态 一般现在时 现在进行时 现在完成时 现在完成进行时 过去状态 一般过去时 过去进行时 过去完成时 过去完成进行时 将来状态 一般将来时 将来进行时 将来完成时 将来完成进行时 过去将来状态 一般过去将来时 过去将来进行时 过去将来完成时 过去将来完成进行时 2、16种时态的谓语形势 一般时 进行时 完成时 完成进行时 现在状态 do/does Am/is/are doing Has/have done Has/have been doing 过去状态 did Was/were doing Had done Had been doing Shall/will be Shall/will have Shall/will have been 将来状态 Shall/will do doing done doing Should/would be Should/would Should/would have been 过去将来状态 Should/would do doing have done doing 3、例句 (1) 一般现在时 概念:经常、反复发生的动作或行为及现在的某种状况。 时间状语:always, usually, often, sometimes, every week (day, year, month,), once a week, etc. 例句:I play basketball every week. (2) 一般过去时 概念:过去某个时间里发生的动作或状态;过去习惯性、经常性的动作、行为。 时间状语:ago, yesterday, the day before yesterday, last week(year, night, month,), in 1989, just now, at the age of 5, one day, long long ago, once upon a time, etc. 例句:I played basketball yesterday. (3) 一般将来时 概念:将来某个时间里发生的动作或状态;将来习惯性、经常性的动作、行为。 时间状语:tomorrow, the day after tomorrow, next week,etc 例句:I will play basketball next Monday. (4) 一般过去将来时 概念:一般过去将来时表示从过去的某一时间来看将来要发生的动作或呈现的状态。过去将来时常用于宾语从句和间接引语中。一般过去将来时的出发点是过去，即从过去某一 时刻看以后要发生的动作或状态。 时间状语: 例句:I told him that I would play basketball next Monday. (5) 现在进行时 概念:表示现阶段或说话时正在进行的动作及行为。 时间状语:now, at this time, these days, etc. 例句:I am playing basketball now. (6) 过去进行时 概念:表示过去某段时间或某一时刻正在发生或进行的行为或动作。 时间状语:at this time yesterday, at that time或以when引导的谓语动词是一般过去时的时间状语等。 例句:I was playing basketball when he called me. (7) 将来进行时 概念:表示将来某一时间正在进行的动作，或表示要在将来某一时间开始，并继续下去的动作。一般用延续性动词表示。 时间状语:soon, this evening,on Sunday, by this time,tomorrow, in two days, tomorrow evening等等。 例句:I will be playing basketball on 6:00 to 8:00 next Monday. (8) 过去将来进行时 概念:过去将来进行时表示就过去某一时间而言，将来某一时刻或某一段时间正在进行的动作。主要用于宾语从句 中，尤其多用于间接引语中。 时间状语: 例句:I told him that I would be playing basketball during 6 to 8 p.m next Monday. (9) 现在完成时 概念:过去发生或已经完成的动作对现在造成的影响或结果，或从过去已经开始，持续到现在的动作或状态。 时间状语:recently, lately, since,for,,in the past few years, etc. 过去时与现在完成时的区别:现在完成时的基本特点是它和现在有密切的联系，或是指迄今为止这一段时间的情况，或是过去发生的事对现在造成的影响或结果等。而过去时主要 强调过去某时刻所发生的动作或情况，与现在没有任何联系。 例句:I have played basketball every week in the past few years. I haven’t seen you since last met. (10) 过去完成时 概念:以过去某个时间为，在此以前发生的动作或行为，或在过去某动作之前完成 的行为，即“过去的过去”。 时间状语:before, by the end of last year(term, month,),etc. 例句:Before we rent the place, I had played basketball in SOUTI. (11) 将来完成时 概念:将来完成时是用在表示在将来某一时间以前已经完成或一直持续的动作。 时间状语:经常与before+将来时间或by+将来时间连用，也可与before或by the time 短语引导的现在时的从句连用。 例句: By the next week, I will have played basketball for 20 years. 表示猜测:You will have heard of this, I guess. 我猜你已经听到这个消息了。 (12) 过去将来完成时 概念:过去将来完成时表示从过去观点看将来某时某动作已完成。这个时态用得相对比 较少，通常主要用于转述方面，即用于间接引语中。 时间状语: 例句:he told me that I will have played basketball for 20 years by the next week. (13) 现在完成进行时 概念:表示动作从某一时间开始，一直持续到现在，或者刚刚终止，或者可能仍然要继 续下去。 时间状语:与since，for连用时，常常表示动作会进行下去 例句:I have been playing basketball since I was in high school. 14) 过去完成进行时 ( 概念:表示过去某一时刻之前开始的动作或状态一直延续到过去某一时刻。 时间状语: 例句:Since I was in high school, I had been playing basketball for 10 years. (15) 将来完成进行时 概念:表示动作从将来的某一时间开始一直延续到将来某一时间。 时间状语: 例句:I will have been playing basketball from next Monday to Sunday. (16)过去将来完成进行时 概念:表示动作从过去某一时间开始一直延续到对于过去来说的将来某一时间 时间状语: 例句:I would have been playing basketball from last Monday to next Sunday. (二)时态的前后一致 1、状语从句中的时态一致 (1)主句为一般将来时或由情态动词表示将来的动作时,if引导的条件句及when; as soon as; before; after; until 等引导的时间状语从句应用一般现在时代替一般将来时.例如: If it doesn’t rain tomorrow,we’ll go to climb the hill. I won’t leave until you agree with me. (2)主句为一般将来时或由情态动词表示将来的动作时,though; although; no matter what/how/when/where引导的让步状语从句也应用一般现在时代替一般将来时. No matter who comes,I will help him. (3)主句为一般将来时或由情态动词表示将来的动作时,the more„引导的比较状语从 句,也应用一般现在时代替一般将来时.例如: The harder you study,the better your English will be. The more trees we plant,the more beautiful our environment will be. (4)since引导的时间状语从句,用一般过去时,主句则用现在完成时(It’s„since„. 例外). Uncle Wang has worked in the factory since it opened in 1982. (5)主句为过去时,状语从句也应用过去时态的某种形式. When I was a child,Father had told me that story. (6) 当主从句的动作均发生在过去时,注意含when,while引导的时间状语从句的主从 句时态一致性的确定方法. a)主句中动词动作先于从句中动词动作发生,且进行的时间较长时,主句用过去进行时, 从句用一般过去时.例如: The teacher was telling us a story when the headmaster came in. b)从句中动词动作先于主句中动词动作发生,且进行的时间较长时,从句用过去进行时, 主句用一般过去时.例如: When the students were having a meeting,the teacher came in. Last Sunday I met Lin Hong when I was walking in the street. c)若主从句动作开始时间不存在先后关系(即同时发生)或无所谓先后时,主从句可同 时使用过去进行时.例如: While Han Mei was sweeping the floor,Lucy was carrying water. d)主句动作和从句动作都已完成,则先发生的动作可用过去完成时态,后发生的动作用一 般过去时态.例如: When they got to the cinema,the film had been on for five minutes. 2、宾语从句中的时态一致 (1)主句为一般现在时态时,从句可用各种适合的时态.例如: I hear my parents will come back in two months. (2).主句为一般过去时态时,从句应用过去时的某种相应形式. a)从句动作已完成,则从句可用过去完成时态或一般过去时态.例如: Jim said that he heard from his brother two days ago. Ann told us that she had seen that film. b)从句动作正在进行时,从句应用过去进行时态.例如: He didn’t tell us whether they were planting trees. c)从句动作尚未发生,则从句用过去将来时态.例如: Didn’t you know when they would start? 注意: 当从句表示客观真理或事实及自然现象时,其时态不应受主句的限制,而用一般现在时态. 例如: Our teacher told us the earth travels around the sun. 二、语态 语态是动词的一种形式，用以说明主语与谓语动词之间的关系。英语的语态共有两种语 态是动词的一种形式，用以说明主语与谓语动词之间的关系。:主动语态和被动语态。主动 语态表示主语是动作的执行者，被动语态表示主语是动作的承受者。被动语态是动词的一种特殊形式，一般说来，只有需要动作对象的及物动词才有被动语态。 第三节 虚拟语气 一、 条件句中的虚拟语气 (一) 条件句的分类 条件句有真实条件句与非真实条件句两种。真实条件句所表示的假设是有可能发生或实现的，句中的条件从句皆用直陈语气。如: If I have enough money, I will buy a computer. If you haven’t finished with that book, you can keep it for one more day. 非真实条件句所表示的假设是不可能或不大可能发生或实现的，句中的条件从句与结果主句皆使用虚拟语气，以下是用于非真实条件句中的虚拟语气形式: 时间 条件从句谓语形式 结果主句谓语形式 例句 与现实事Would/should/might/动词过去式 If I were you, I wouldn’t do it. 实相反 could +原形动词 If he should go to study in Qinghua 动词过去式 University, he would study hard 与将来事Would/should/might/Should + 原形动词 now. 实相反 could +原形动词 Were to + 原形动词 If he were to come here, he would tell us about it. Would/should/might/与过去事Had + 动词过去分If I had known what is love, I would could + have + 原形实相反 词 never have let you go. 动词 (二) 使用虚拟语气应注意的事项 1、虚拟条件句中，结果主句和条件从句的谓语动作若不是同时发生时，虚拟语气的形式应作相应的调整。 (1) 从句的动作与过去事实相反，而主句的动作与现在或现在正在发生的事实不符。如: If I had worked hard at school, I would be an engineer, too. 如果我在学校学习刻苦的话，我现在也会成为一个工程师了 If they had informed us, we would not come here now. 如果他们通知过我们的话，我们现在就不会来这里了。 (2) 从句的动作与现在事实相反，而主句的动作与过去事实不符。如: If he were free today, we would have sent him to Beijing. 如果他今天有空的话，我们会已经派他去北京了。 If he knew her, he would have greeted her. 要是他认识她的话，他肯定会去问候她了。 (3) 从句的动作与过去发生的情况相反，而主句的动作与现在正在发生的情况相反。如: If it had not been raining too much, the crops would be growing much better. 如果天不下太多的雨的话，庄稼会长得更好。 If he had been working hard, he would be working in the office now. 要是他工作一直努力的话，他现在已进了办公室了。 2、 当虚拟条件句的谓语动词含有were, should, had时，if可以省略，这是条件从句要 用倒装语序，即将were, should, had等词置于句首，这种多用于书面语。如: Should he agree to go there, we would send him there. 要是他答应去的话，我们就派他去。 Were she here, she would agree with us. 如果她在这儿的话，她会同意我们的。 Had he learnt about computers, we would have hired him to work here. 如果她懂一些电脑知识的话，我们会已经聘用他来这里工作了。 3、非真实条件句中的条件从句有时不表达出来，只暗含在上下文中，这种句子叫做含蓄条件句，在多数情况下，条件会暗含在短语中，如without„., but for„(要不是)等 But for his help, we would be working now. 要不是他的帮助，我们还会在工作呢。 Without your instruction， I would not have made such great progress. 要是没有你的指导，我不会取得如此大的进步。 We didn’t know his telephone number; otherwise we would have telephoned him. 我们不知道他的电话号码，否则我们就会给他打电话。 4、有时，虚拟条件句中，主、从句可以省略其中的一个，来表示说话人的一种强烈的感情。 (1) 省略从句 He would have finished it. 他本该完成了。 You could have passed this exam. 你应该会通过这次考试了。 (2) 省略主句 If I were at home now. 要是我现在在家里该多好啊。 If only I had got it. 要是我得到它了该多好啊。 二、其他状语从句的虚拟语气 (一) 目的状语从句中的虚拟语气 1、在for fear that, in case, lest引导的目的状语从句中，若用虚拟语气时，从句谓语为: should + 动词原形，并且 should不能省略。 She examined the door again for fear that a thief should come in. 她又把门检查了一遍，以防盗贼的进入。 He started out earlier lest he should be late. 他很早就出发了以防迟到。 2、 在so that, in order that所引导的目的状语从句中，从句中的谓语为: can / may / could / might / will / would / should + 动词原形。如: He goes closer to the speaker so that he can hear him clearer. 他走近说话的人以便能挺得更清楚。 He read the letter carefully in order that he should not miss a . 他把信读得很仔细以便不漏掉一个单词。 (二) 让步状语从句中的虚拟语气 1、在even if, even though 所引导的让步状语从句中，可用虚拟语气，主句、从句的结构与if所引导的条件从句结构相同。如: Even if he were here himself, he should not know what to do. 即使他亲自来也不知该怎么办。 Nobody could save him even though Hua Tuo should come here. 即使华佗在世也救不了他。 2、在whatever， whichever，whenever，whoever, wherever，however, no matter wh-word 等引导的让步状语从句中，从句虚拟语气结构为: (1) may +动词原形(指现在或将来)。如: We will finish it on time no matter what / whatever may happen. 不管发生什么事，我们都 要按时完成。 We will find him wherever / no matter where he may be. 无论他在哪里，我们都要找到他。 I will wait for him no matter how late he may come. 不管他来的多么晚，我都会等他。 (2) may +完成式(指过去) ，主句结构不限。如: You mustn’t be proud whatever / no matter what great progress you may have made. 不管你取得了多么大的进步，你也不能骄傲。 We must respect him no matter what / whatever mistakes he may have made. 不管他翻过什么错误，我们必须尊敬他。 (三) 方式状语从句中的虚拟语气 as if, as though引导的方式状语从句常用虚拟语气。虚拟语气的结构为: 表示所发生的时间 虚拟语气结构 例句 发生在主句动作之They began to talk warmly as if they had known Had+过去分词 前 each other for long. 与主句动作同时发He seems to be painful as if he were drinking a 过去式(be用were) 生 poison. 发生在主句动作之He coughed twice as if someone should come. 他Would/could/might/ 后 should/+原形动词 咳嗽两声就好像有人要来了。 三、常用短语或句型 Provided/providing(that) 假如:I will pardon him provided/ providing(that) he acknowledges his mistake. As long as 只要:Any book will do as long as it is interesting. But for 若非:But for his hard work, I wouldn’t like him. Lest 以免:I got up early lest I should miss the train. As if 好像:He looked as if nothing had happened. What if„„should„„ 要是„„的话会怎样:what if it should rain?/what if he comes? If only 要是„„就好了:If only he were here. 第三部分 句法 第一章 一般规则 第一节 三大类句子 一、简单句 只含有一个主谓结构并且句子各成分都只由单词或短语构成的独立句子或分句叫做简单句。在简单句中主语和谓语是句子的主干，是句子的核心。 二、并列句 三、复合句 (一) 定语从句 1、概念 修饰一个名词或代词的从句称为定语从句，一般紧跟在它所修饰的先行词后面。 引导定语从句的关联词成为关系词。关系词有关系代词和关系副词，其中: 关系代词有that, which, who, whom, whose, as 等; 关系副词有where, when, why等。 关系词常有3个作用:1，引导定语从句。2，代替先行词。3，在定语从句中担当一个成分。 2、关系代词引导的定语从句 (1) who指人，在从句中做主语 The boys who are playing football are from Class One. Yesterday I helped an old man who lost his way. (2) whom指人，在定语从句中充当宾语，常可省略。 Mr. Liu is the person (whom) you talked about on the bus. Mr. Ling is just the boy whom I want to see. 注意:关系代词whom在口语和非正式语体中常用who代替，可省略。 The man who/whom you met just now is my friend. (3) which指物，在定语从句中做主语或者宾语，做宾语时可省略 Football is a game which is liked by most boys. This is the pen (which) he bought yesterday. (4) that指人时，相当于who 或者whom;指物时，相当于which。在宾语从句中做 主语或者宾语，做宾语时可省略。 The number of the people that/who come to visit the city each year rises one million. Where is the man that/whom I saw this morning? (5) whose通常指人，也可指物，在定语从句中做定语 He has a friend whose father is a doctor. I once lived in a house whose roof has fallen in. whose指物时，常用the + n. + of which或 of which + the + n. 来代替: The classroom whose door is broken will soon be repaired. The classroom the door of which is broken will soon be repaired. The classroom of which the door is broken will soon be repaired. 3、介词+关系代词引导的定语从句 (1) 关系代词在定语从句中做介词宾语时，从句常由介词+关系代词引导: The school (that/which) he once studied in is very famous. The school in which he once studied is very famous. Tomorrow I will bring here a magazine (that/which) you asked for. Tomorrow I will bring here a magazine for which you asked. 注意:1. 含有介词的动词短语一般不拆开使用，如:look for, look after, take care of等 This is the watch which/that I am looking for. (T) This is the watch for which I am looking. (F) (2)若介词放在关系代词前，关系代词指人时用whom，不可用who或者that;指物 时用which，不能用that;关系代词是所有格时用whose: The man with whom you talked is my friend. (T) The man who/that you talked with is my friend. (F) The plane in which we flew to Canada is very comfortable. (T) The plane in that we flew in to Canada is very comfortable. (F) (3) “介词+关系代词”前可有some, any, none, both, all, neither, most, each, few等代 词或者数词 He loved his parents deeply, both of whom are very kind to him. In the basket there are quite many apples, some of which have gone bad. There are forty students in our class in all, most of whom are from big cities. 4、关系副词引导的定语从句 (1) when指时间，在定语从句中做时间状语 I still remember the day when I first came to the school. The time when we got together finally came. (2)where指地点，在定语从句中做地点状语 Shanghai is the city where I was born. The house where I lived ten years ago has been pulled down. (3) why指原因，在定语从句中做原因状语 Please tell me the reason why you missed the plane. I don't know the reason why he looks unhappy today. 注意:关系副词引导的从句可以由“介词+关系代词”引导的从句替换，其中when= at/on/in which, where=at/on/in which, why=for which. The reason why/ for which he refused the invitation is not clear, From the year when/in which he was going to school he began to know what he wanted when he grew up. Great changes have taken place in the city in which/where I was born. 5、限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句 (1) 非限制性定语从句 先行词为专有名词(如Tom、John、Africa)及独一性名词，如father、mother，之后若 接关系代词所引导的定语从句时，该关系代词之前一定要置逗号，此时的定语从句就称为非 限制性定语从句，翻译时按顺序译出。 I met John, who is my classmate. He has just come back from New York, which is a very big city in the United States. Here comes my father, who is an English teacher. (2) 限制性定语从句 先行词为一般名词且本身未具特殊性，可用定语从句加以限制，以加强其特殊性，其关 系代词前不置逗号，翻译时译成“„„的”，先翻译定语从句，再译先行词。 He is a boy who works hard. I like the book which he bought yesterday. (二) 状语从句 1、概念 它在句子中担任状语，修饰主句的动词、形容词或副词。 2、状语从句的分类 根据修饰的方面，状语从句可以分为以下九种: (1) 时间状语从句 种类 从属连词 例 句 说 明 when指的是“某一具体的时间”。 when When I came into the room, he was writing a letter. 当我进屋时，他正在写信。 whenever指的是“在任何一个不具 体的时间”。 whenever We shall go there whenever we are free. 时 我们什么时间有空，我们就去那里。 间 when意为“这时”或“在那个时候”,when I was walking along the street when suddenly 可以看作是并列句,这种用法的 someone patted me on the shoulder from behind. 我正在街上走着，这时忽然有人从后面拍我的when分句一般位于句末。 状 肩膀。 while指“在某一段时间里”，“在„ while While it was raining, they went out. 天下雨的时候，他们出去了。 期间”，while引导的动作必须是持 语 续性的。 I stayed while he was away. 他不在的时候我在。 as引导持续性动作，强调主句和从as He hurried home, looking behind as he went. 从 他赶快回家，不时地一边走一边向后看。 句的动作同时发生。 before译为在„之前 before Be a pupil before you become a teacher. 先做学生，再做先生。 句 after He arrived after the game started. 比赛开始后，他到了。 如主句动词是持续性动作，常用肯till We waited till (until)he came back . 我们一直等到他回来。 定式，表示“直到„为止” 如主句动词是瞬间动词，常用否定until She didn’t stop working until eleven o’clock . 她到11点钟才停止工作。 式，表示“直„才”“在„以前不”, 从句放在句首表示强调，一般用until Until he had passed out of sight, she stood there. 她站在那里看着，直到看不见他的身影。 状语从句在主句之前时一般用逗号since Great changes have taken place in China since 与主句分开，如从句在主句之后则 1978. 自从1978年以来中国发生了巨大的变化。 不必用标点符号。 as soon as As soon as I arrive in Shanghai, I’ll write to you. 我一到上海就给你写信。 hardly„hardly„when和no sooner„than的I had hardly got home when it began to rain. 我刚一到家，就下雨了。=Hardly had I got home 意义相当于as soon as,但只表示过去when 发生的事情，主句为过去完成时， when it began to rain. 从句为过去时，如hardly或no soonerno No sooner had we got to the station than the train sooner„位于句首时语气强，而且主句的谓left. 我们刚到车站，火车就走了。 语要用部分倒装。 than Hardly had we begun when we were told to stop. 我们刚开始就被叫停。 在时间状语从句中，不能用将来时every time, Every time I travelled by boat, I got seasick. 我每次乘船都晕船。 或过去将来时，而要用现在时或过by the time, 去时代替将来时。 the moment The moment I heard the song, I felt cheerful. 等 我一听到这首歌，就感到很愉快。 Next time you come ,you’ll see him. 下次你来的时候，就会见到他。 (2) 地点状语从句 种类 从属连句 例 句 说 明 where与wherever意义基本相同，但 where Where there is a will, there is a way. 地 有志者，事竟成。 后者语气较强，多用于书面语。 点 wherever Where there is water,there is life. 状 哪里有水，哪里就有生命。 语 You are free to go wherever you like. 从 你可以随意到你喜欢的任何地方去。 句 Wherever you go, you must obey the law. 无论你去哪都要遵守法律。 (3) 原因状语从句 种类 从属连句 例 句 说 明 because用来回答why 的问题，语气because I came back late yesterday because I was on duty. 昨天我回来晚了，因为我值班。 最强一般放在主句之后 since Since everyone is here, let’s begin our meeting. since表示既然或全已知的理由,稍加 既然大家都到了，我们开始开会。 分析即可表明的原因,多放句首 原 从句常放在句首，说明原因，主句as As he didn’t know much English, he looked up 因 说明结果，常用于口语中。 the word in the dictionary . 状 由于他英语懂得不多，他在字典中查阅这个单语 词。 从 now that, Now (that) the weather has cleared up, we can seeing (that), now that 和since, as 句 意义相似，他们都有“鉴于某个事seeing that start our journey. 鉴于天气已经晴朗，我们可以启程了。 实”的意思，that可以省去。 Seeing (that) he was badly ill, we sent for the doctor. 鉴于他病情严重，我们派人去请医生去了。 (4) 目的状语从句 种类 从属连句 例 句 说 明 目的状语从句中常用情态动词may that I shall write down your telephone number that I (might) can (could) ,should 等放在动 may not forget. 我要把你的电话号码记下来，以免忘记。 词之前，从句往往放在主句之后，主 目 从句之间不用任何标点符号 so that We’ll tell you the truth so that you can judge for 的 yourself. 状 我把真实情况告诉你，使你能自己作出判断。 语 They worked harder than usual in order that they 从 in order that could finish the work ahead of time . 句 他们比往常更加努力工作，为了能提前完成工 作。 lest = for Put on more clothes lest (= for fear that ) you fear that should catch cold. 多穿点衣服，以免患感冒。 (5) 结果状语从句 种类 从属连句 例 句 说 明 so that前有逗号为结果状语从句。 so that We turned up the radio, so that everyone heard so„that的so后面跟形容词或副词。 the news. 结 我们把收音机的音量放大，大家都听到了新 闻。 果 so„that He was so excited that he couldn’t say a word. 他十分激动，以致一句话都说不出来。 状 such„that such„that的such后面跟名词，如果He gave such important reasons that he was excused.他说出了这么重要的理由，得到大家名词是单数就要用such a /an„that 语 的谅解。 还可以转换用so„that，语气较强 It is such an interesting novel that all of us want 从 to read it. It is so interesting a novel that all of us want to 句 read it. 这是一本十分有意思的书，大家都想看。 (6) 条件状语从句 种类 从属连句 例 句 说 明 if Difficulties are nothing if we are not afraid of unless从句的谓语只能用肯定式。 unless和if„not同义，unless是书面 them. 条 如果我们不怕困难，困难就算不了什么了。 语，if„not是口语，通常二者可以 换用。 We shall go there tomorrow unless it rains. 件 除非下雨，我们明天就去那里。 条件状语从句中的谓语动词的时态unless 要用一般现在时，而主句用一般将 = We shall go there tomorrow if it doesn’t rain. 状 来时。 So/As long as you work hard, you will succeed. 只要你努力工作，你就一定能成功。 语 in case In case I forget, please remind me about it . 万一我忘了，请提醒我一下。 从 so far as So far as I know, the book will be published next month. 句 据我所知，那本书下月出版。 (7) 方式状语从句 种类 从属连句 例 句 说 明 此处as译为，按照或正如 as Draw a cat as I taught you . 方 按照我教你的画一只猫。 as if或as though的意义和用法基本 一样。从句中可以用现在时表示可 Do as you are told. 式 按照人家告诉你做的去做。 能符合事实，也可以用虚拟语气。 as if„ She looks as if she is ill. 状 看上去她好象是生病了。 as though He acted as if (though) nothing had happened. 语 他的行动就好象什么也没有发生。 They treat the black boy as if (though) he were an 从 animal. 他们对待这黑孩子仿佛他是一头牲口。 句 (8) 让步状语从句 让步状语从句是状语从句中的一种，其本身也是状语从句。一般翻译为“尽管„„”或“即使„„”，就是我们日常生活中用的“退一步说„”或者“就算„”的感觉。 种类 从属连句 例 句 说 明 在句子中一般用了“虽然”就不能 though Although (Though) he was over sixty, (yet) he 让 began to learn French. 再用“但是”(but)但可以与yet 虽然他六十多岁了，但仍开始学习法语 。 或still连用。though / although意义步 相同，用法基本一样，前者通俗， We were not tired though (although) we had 口语化，后者正式多放主句的前面。 although worked all day. 状 虽然我们干了一天活，但并不累。 even if 和even though的意思为“即even if I’ll go even if (though) it rains tomorrow. 语 即使明天下雨，我也要去。 使”“纵使”有退一步设想的意味，even 多用于书面语中。 though 从 as Child as he is , he knows a lot . as引出的状语从句多用于书面语， 虽然他是一个孩子，但他懂得很多。 它比用 句 Cold as it is, (= Though it is cold,)the children though或although引导的从句，语 气强，更有表现力，从句常放在句play outdoors. 虽然天气冷，但孩子们仍在户外玩。 首，语序部分倒装。 no matter„„与 who-ever引导的让no matter Do it no matter what others say. 不管别人怎么说,尽管干。 步状语从句意义基本一样，no (who, what matter„„引导的从句可是以位于when, No matter how busy he was, he studied English 主句前或主句后。 where every day. 不管他多忙，他都每天坚持学习英语。 which, how„) No matter who takes up the matter for me ,I shall be very grateful. 不管谁为我处理这件事，我都将非常感激。 wh,wh,ever从句中的动词有时可以和Whatever happens / may happen , we shall not may连用。判断wh,ever引导的是ever (lose heart. 无论发生什么，我们都不要失去信心。 状语从句还是名词性从句的一点whatever 是，名词性从句，主句中一定有一whoever Whoever comes, he will be welcome. 无论谁来，都会受到欢迎。 个成分要在从句担任，一般从句与whenever 主句之间没有逗号。 whichever 不可将no matter与wh—ever连用 however) (9) 比较状语从句 种类 从属连词 例 句 说 明 as„as 连词表示同程度级的比较，肯定句Mary is as old as my sister. 玛利和我姐姐一样大。 用as„as否定句可用not as„as 或 not so„as not so/as He doesn’t run so (as) fast as Jack (does). „as 他不如杰克跑得那样快。 the same His book is the same as mine. „as 他的书和我的一样。 such„as Henry is not such a good worker as Peter . 享利这个工人不如彼得那样好。 比 表示不同程度之比较，主句中用比than She has made greater progress this year than she 较级的形容词或副词。 did last year. 较 她今年比去年进步更大。 He bought fewer books than I (did). 状 他买的书比我买的少。 the more The more you read, the better you understand. the more„the more 意思为越„语 „the more 你看的书越多，你懂得的就越多。 越„，通常的语序为从句在前主句 The more tickets you sell, the more money you 在后，这两个the都是表示程度的从 副词，用在比较级的形容词或副词will get. 你卖的票越多，你的收入也越多。 前面。 句 The harder you work, the greater progress you will make. 你工作越努力，你取得的进步就越大。 句子意思明显，句子的主语和动词 都可省略。 The sooner, the better. 越快越好。 The warmer, the better. 越暖和越好。 (10)特殊形式的状语从句 种类 从属连句 例 句 说 明 that We are sure (that )the four modernization will be that 引导的从句，往往跟在一个做特 表语的形容词后面，从句概念上看realized in China . 殊 我们相信四化一定会在中国实现。 是宾语，所以有的语法家把它看做形 是宾语从句，但结构上看，也可以I’m sorry (that) I didn’t have time to write you 式 把它看作是一个特殊的状语从句，sooner. 的 很抱歉，我没有抽出时间早点给你写信。 用来修饰表语的形容词。这种从句状 的连词常常被省略。 I am afraid that I can’t go with you. 语 恐怕我不能同你一起去了。 从 句 (三) 名词性从句 在复合句中起名词作用的从句叫做名词性从句。它包括主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句。 引导名词性从句的连接词可分为三类: 连接词:that, whether, if (不充当从句的任何成分) 连接代词:what, whatever, who, whoever, whom, whose, which. 连接副词:when, where, how, why 1. 主语从句 作句子主语的从句叫主语从句。主语从句通常由从属连词that，whether，if和连接代词what，who，which，whatever，whoever以及连接副词how，when，where，why等词引导。that在从句中无词义，只起连接作用;连接代词和连接副词在句中既保留自己的疑问含义、又起连接作用，在从句中充当从句的成分。例如: What he wants to tell us is not clear. 他要跟我们说什么，还不清楚。 It is known to us how he became a writer. 我们都知道他是如何成为一名作家的。 Where the English evening will be held has not yet been announced. 英语晚会将在哪里举行，还没有宣布。 有时为避免句子头重脚轻，常用形式主语it代替主语从句作形式主语放于句首，而把主语从句置于句末。主语从句后的谓语动词一般用单数形式。常用句型如下: (1)It + be + 名词 + that从句 (2)It + be + 形容词 + that从句 (3)It + be + 动词的过去分词 + that从句 (4)It + 不及物动词 + that 从句 另注意在主语从句中用来表示惊奇、不相信、惋惜、理应如此等语气时，谓语动词要用虚拟语气“(should) +do”，常用的句型有: It is necessary (important, natural, strange, etc.) that „ It is a pity (a shame, no wonder, etc.) that„ It is suggested (requested, proposed, desired, etc.) that„ 2. 宾语从句 名词句用作宾语的从句叫宾语从句。引导宾语从句的关联词与引导主语从句表语从句的关联词大致一样，在句中可以作谓语动词或介词及非谓语动词的宾语。 (1) 由连接词that引导的宾语从句 由连接词that引导宾语从句时，that在句中不担任任何成分，在口语或非正式的文体中常被省去，但如从句是并列句时,第二个分句前的that不可省。例如: He has told me that he will go to Shanghai tomorrow. 他已经告诉我他明天要去上海。 We must never think (that) we are good in everything while others are good in nothing. 我们决不能认为自己什么都好，别人什么都不好。 注意:在demand、order、suggest、decide、insist, desire, demand, request, command 等表示要求、命令、建议、决定等意义的动词后，宾语从句常用“(should)+ 动词原形”。例如: I insist that she (should) do her work alone. 我坚持要她自己工作。 The commander ordered that troops (should) set off at once. 司令员命令部队马上出发。 (2) 用who，whom, which, whose, what, when, where, why, how, whoever, whatever, whichever等关联词引导的宾语从句相当于特殊疑问句，应注意句子语序要用陈述语序。 例如: I want to know what he has told you. 我想知道他告诉了你什么。 She always thinks of how she can work well. 她总是在想怎样能把工作做好。 She will give whoever needs help a warm support. 凡需要帮助的人，她都会给予热情的支持。 (3) 用whether或if引导的宾语从句，其主语和谓语的顺序也不能颠倒，仍保持陈述句语序。此外，whether与if 在作“是否”的意思讲时在下列情况下一般只能用whether，不用if: a. 引导主语从句并在句首时;b. 引导表语从句时;c . 引导从句作介词宾语时;d. 从 句后有“or not”时;e. 后接动词不定式时。 例如: Whether there is life on the moon is an interesting question. 月球上有没有生命是个有趣的问题。 Everything depends on whether we have enough money. 一切要看我们是否有足够的钱。 (4) 注意宾语从句中的时态呼应，当主句动词是现在时，从句根据自身的句子情况，而使用不同时态。 例如: he studies English every day. (从句用一般现在时) he studied English last term. (从句用一般过去时) I know (that) he will study English next year. (从句用一般将来时) he has studied English since 1998. (从句用现在完成时) 当主句动词是过去时态(could, would除外)，从句则要用相应的过去时态，如一般过去时，过去进行时，过去将来时等;当从句表示的是客观真理，科学原理，自然现象，则从句仍用现在时态。 例如:The teacher told us that Tom had left us for America( (5) think, believe, imagine, suppose等等动词引起的否定性宾语从句中，要把上述主句中的动词变为否定式。即将从句中的否定形式移到主句中。 例如: We don’t think you are here. 我们认为你不在这。 I don’t believe he will do so. 我相信他不会这样做。 3. 表语从句 在句中作表语的从句叫表语从句。引导表语从句的关联词与引导主语从句的关联词大致一样，表语从句位于连系动词后，有时用as if引导。其基本结构为:主语 + 系动词 + that从句。例如: The fact is that we have lost the game. 事实是我们已经输了这场比赛。 That is why he didn’t come to the meeting. 那就是他为什么不到会的原因。 It looks as if it is going to rain. 看上去天要下雨了。 需要注意的，当主语是reason时，表语从句要用that引导而不是because。例如: The reason why he was late was that he missed the train by one minute this morning 4. 同位语从句 同位语从句说明其前面的名词的具体内容。同位语从句通常由that引导，可用于同位语从句的名词有advice、demand、doubt、fact、hope、idea、information、message、news、order、problem、promise、question、request、suggestion、truth、wish、word等。例如: The news that we won the game is exciting. 我们赢得这场比赛的消息令人激动。 I have no idea when he will come back home. 我不知道他什么时候回来。 The thought came to him that Mary had probably fallen ill. 他想到可能玛丽生病了。 同位语从句和定语从句的区别: that作为关系代词，可以引导定语从句，在从句中充当句子成分，在从句中作宾语时可以省略; that引导同位语从句时，起连词的作用，没有实际意义，在从句中不充当句子成分，一般不能省略。 试比较下面两个例句: I had no idea that you were here((that引导同位语从句，不能省略) Have you got the idea(that)this book gives you of life in ancient Greece,(that引导定语从句，作宾语，可以省略) 第二节 六种简单句句型 英语六种基本句型列式 基本句型一:S+V (主+谓) 基本句型二:S+V+P (主+系+表) 基本句型三:S+V+DO (主+谓+宾) 基本句型四:S+V+IO+DO(主+谓+间宾+直宾) 基本句型五:S+V+DO+OC (主+谓+宾+宾补) 基本句型六:There be 一、主语+谓语 谓语一定是动词 这种句型简称为主谓结构，其谓语一般都是不及物动词，例: Things change.事物是变化的。 Nobody went.没有人去。 --Did you go by sea,你们走的是海路吗, --NO, we flew.不，我们是飞去。 二、主语+系动词+表语 也叫做主系表 这种句型称为主系表结构，其实系动词在形式上也是一种谓语动词，但实质上表语成了 谓语，例: Mr. Turner is an artist.特纳先生是位画家。 注:我们平常所说的be动词有两种含义: 1、作为助动词的be; 2、作为系动词的be; 三、主语+谓语+宾语 这种句型可称为主谓宾结构，它的谓语一般多是及物动词，例: We never beat children.我们从来不打孩子。 My sister will fix everything.我姐姐会料理一切。 四、主语+谓语+宾语+宾语 这种句型可称为主谓宾宾结构，其谓语应是可有双宾语的及物动词，两个宾语一个是间 接宾语，一个是直接宾语，其中指物或指事的就是直接宾语 指人(或动物)的就是间接宾 语。例: He gave the book to his sister.他把这本书给了他的妹妹。 I'll write you a long letter.我将写给你一封长信。 五、主语+谓语+宾语+宾补 所谓宾语补足语就是补充说明前面的宾语 这种句型可简称为主谓宾补结构，其补语是宾语补语，与宾语一起即构成复合宾语，例: I found the book easy.我发现这本书不难。(形容词easy作补语) I'll let him go.我将让他去。(动词go用作补语) 注意:有时两个或更多的并列主语拥有一个共同的谓语，甚至并列有两个主语和两个谓 语，这样的句子仍然是简单句，例: China and other countries in the east Asia are developing rapidly.中国和东亚其它国家正在 迅速地发展。(China and other countries并列主语) Mr. Wang and I often work together and help each other.王先生和我常在一起工作互相帮 助。 六、There be句型 第三节 九种句子成分 句子是按照一定的语法规律组成的，表达一个完整的意义。一个句子由主要成分和次要成分构成，其中主要成分即主语和谓语，次要成分包括宾语、定语、状语、表语等。 一、主语 主语是一句的主体，是全句述说的对象，常用名词，数词或代词担任，一般放于句首。如: Students study. (学生学习) We are friends.(我们是朋友) 这两句话中单词students是个名词，we是代词，它们在句中做主语。 二、谓语 谓语是对主语加以陈述，表示主语的行为或状态，常用动词或者动词词组担任，放在主语的后面。如: Students study. (学生学习。) We are friends. (我们是朋友) 这两句话中单词study和are都是动词，study叫做实意动词，are叫做be动词，它们在句中作谓语。 三、宾语 宾语表示行为的对象，常由名词或者代词担任。放在及物动词或者介词之后。如: They are teachers. ( 他们是老师。) I play with him. (我和他一起玩。) 这两句话中单词teachers是名词，单词him是带词，它们在句中作宾语。 四、定语 定语是用来说明或者限制名词的成分，常用形容词或者相当于形容词的短语或从句担任。形容词放在名词之前，相当于形容词的短语或从句放在名词的后面。如: This is a red sun.(这是个红太阳.) He is a tall boy.(他是个高个子男孩。) 这两句话中单词red和 tall都是形容词，它们作定语。 五、状语 状语是用来修饰动词、形容词、副词或整个句子的成分，常由副词、介词短语、分词和分词短语、不定式或相当于副词的词或短语来担当，用于说明地点、时间、原因、目的、结果、条件、方向、程度、方式和伴随状况等。其位置一般放在句末，但也可放在句首或句中。 1、用副词做状语 He speaks English very well. 他英语说得非常好。 其中的“very”是程度副词，用来修饰“well”。“very well”是修饰“speak”的程度状语。 2、用不定式在句子中可以作目的状语 I come specially to see you. 我专门来看你。 其中的“to see you”是修饰“come”的目的状语。 3、介词短语 The boy was praised for his bravery. 其中“for his bravery”是修饰“was praised”的原因状语。 4、从句作状语 When she was 12 years old, she began to live in Dalian. 其中“When she was 12 years old”是修饰“live”的时间状语。 If I am not busy tomorrow, I will play football with you. 其中“If I am not busy tomorrow”是修饰“I will play football with you”的条件状语。 5、分词作状语 Having had a quarrel with his wife, he left home in a bad temper。 其中“Having had a quarrel with his wife”是修饰“he left home in a bad temper”的原因状语;而“in a bad temper”是修饰“left home”的状况状语;而“home”是修饰“left”的地点状语。 六、表语 表语用来说明主语的性质或状态。一般由名词或者形容词担任。如:This table is long. (这个桌子是长的。) 七、补语 八、同位语 九、独立成分 第二章 特殊规则 第一节 倒装结构 一、否定倒装 否定倒装句就是将否定副词、否定副词短语和否定状语从句移至句首的倒装句 1、否定副词、否定副词短语和否定状语从句 (1) 常用否定副词:Never, hardly, rarely, seldom, little (2) 常用否定副词短语:by no means, in no way, on no account, under no circumstances, in no situation. (3) 常用否定状语从句: Not until + S + V:直到„„ Only when + S + V:只有到„„的时候 Only after + S + V: 只有到„„后 2、如何倒装 如主语后有be动词、助动词的句子，将否定词移至句首后，be动词与助动词也需要倒装: You are by no means the person we need - By no means are you the person we need. I was not aware of it until he came - Not until he came was I aware of it. 如主语后为一般动词，则先将否定词移至句首后，添加助动词do、does或did，再将动词变为原形动词: He seldom sings - Seldom does he sing. 3、not only... But (also)...不仅„„而且„„ (1) 本短语可以连接对等的单词、短语和从句 Not only I but you are wrong (2) 本短语还可以连接对等的句子，但由于not only置于句首，视为否定句，因此not only后的句子要倒装，but also后的句子不须倒装，但also一定要省略 Not only can she sing, but she can dance. 二、so/such 倒装句 在“so...that...”或“such... that....”的结构中，若将so或such及其引导的词类置于句首，亦采用倒装结构，句法与否定倒装句完全相同。 He is so helpful that we all like him. - So helpful is he that we all like him. He came so late that he missed the train. - So late did he come that he missed the train. 三、地点副词倒装句 地点副词(there、here)或地点副词短语(in the room、at the station、by the window等)置于句首时，亦可形成倒装句，但句法与否定倒装句不同，句型有三种 1、 主语+不及物动词+地点副词/地点副词短语 - 地点副词/地点副词短语+ 不及物动词+ 主语 A girl sat there/by the door - There/By the door sat a girl. 2、主语 + be动词 +过去分词 + 地点副词/地点副词短语 - 地点副词/地点副词短语 + be动词 + 过去分词 +主语 A man was locked behind the door. - Behind the door was locked a man. 3、主语+ be动词 + 现在分词 + 地点副词/地点副词短语 - 现在分词+ 地点副词/地点副词短语 +主语 A girl is singing over there - Singing over there is a girl. 以上地点副词倒装结构适合于主语为普通名词或专有名词，如果主语为代词，则不可倒装，即地点副词可以移至句首，但句子不倒装。 He stood there - There he stood。 4、here 与 there的习惯用语 (1) Here we are 我们到了 (2) Here you are(Here you go)拿去吧 (3) There you are(There it is)在那里 (4) There you go again 你又来这一套了。 第二节 比较结构 一、一般比较 than 1、本身已有最高级意味的形容词不可用在比较结构里 Perfect, sublime, noble, extreme, superb, excellent 2、本身已有比较级意味的形容词不可用“more...than...”或“less...than...”修饰，而要与介词to连用 Be superior to Be inferior to Be senior to Be junior to 3、最高级副词:most 及 least，可用于修饰句中的形容词、副词或动词。 She is the most beautiful girl I’ve ever seen. He treats people most politely. I need you most. 4、By far / much可以修饰最高级 She is by far (much) the most beautiful girl in town. 二、原级比较 as As well as:第一个as翻译成“一样的”，第二个as翻译成“和” “as...as...”用于肯定句或否定句，而“so... as...”只用于否定句 He studies as hard as Mary. He doesn’t study so hard as Mary. 三、as/than 的重要用法 1、as...as one can/as...as possible 尽可能地„„ You must study as hard as you can. 2、as...as any 与任何人一样 He is as happy a man as any 3、as...as ever 与往常一样 He is as young as ever 4、as...as ever lived 古今最„„之一 He is as great a hero as ever lived. 5、两个形容词的比较 He is not so bad as good. 他好的成分大于坏的 6、倍数词造句 (1) 倍数词 + as...as... 是„„的几倍 He is three times as heavy as I (2) more than + 倍数词 + as...as... 是„„的几倍还不止 He is more than three times as heavy as I (3) 倍数词 + the(或所有格) + 名词 He is three times my weight (4) more than + 倍数词 + the(或所有格) + 名词 He is more than three times my weight. 7、not so much...as...与其说„„倒不如说„„ (1) not so much + 名词 + as + 名词 He is not so much a writer as a scholar (2) not so much + 动词 + as + 动词 He do not so much praise her as criticize her (3) not so much + 介词短语 + as + 介词短语 Success lies not so much in luck as in hard work (4) not so much + 不定式 + as + 不定式 Our success was attributed not so much to your help as to our corporation. 8、not so much as... = not even 甚至都不 He cannot so much as write his own name = He cannot even write his own name. 9、all the + 比较级 + for + 名词 / all the + 比较级 + because 从句:就是因为„„却更加„„ He studied all the harder for his failure/ because he had failed。 10、none the less 尽管如此、仍然、然而 I love him none the less because he is poor. She is none the less beautiful for her shabby clothing. 11、at most 最多/ at best 充其量 He is at most ten-years-old. He is at best a second-rate musician 12、much less... 更不用说„„ The child can’t even walk, much less run. 第三节 反义疑问句 一、概念 反义疑问句(The Disjunctive Question 或 Question tags) 即附加疑问句。它表示提问人的看法，没有把握，需要对方证实。 反义疑问句由两部分组成:前一部分是一个陈述句，后一部分是一个简短的疑问句，两部分的人称时态应保持一致。 主要形式:陈述部分肯定式+疑问部分否定式 ;陈述部分否定式+疑问部分肯定式 。 陈述部分和疑问部分要么前肯后否，要么前否后肯。这类反义疑问句有时带有感情色彩，表示惊奇，愤怒，讽刺，不服气等。 二、使用规则 1、陈述句中有be动词或助动词的，反义疑问句沿用be动词或助动词; He is nice, isn’t he? He will come, won’t he? 2、陈述句有一般动词，反义疑问句则使用do、does、did He came, didn’t he? 3、与祈使句使用时，反义疑问句一律用will you Come here, will you? 4、与“let’s„„”句型使用时，反义疑问句一律用shall we Let’s go, shall we? 5、句中有否定副词scarcely、hardly、rarely、no doubt、little、never、by no means时，陈述句视为否定句，须接肯定疑问句。 Michael scarcely ever smokes, does he? 6、陈述句中的助动词短语未ought to时，反义疑问句中须用shouldn’t。 He ought to come, shouldn’t he? 7、“I +表意见的动词+ that从句”的反义疑问句，应以其后面的that从句形成反问。 I think that David is nice, isn’t he?