细胞的生物电现象的定义

细胞的生物电现象的定义 细胞的生物电现象的定义？分类？现？原理？ 生物电现象是生物机体进行功能活动时显示出来的电现象，它在生物界普遍存在。细胞的生物电现象主要表现为安静时膜的静息电位(Resting Potential) 和受到刺激时产生动作电位(Action Potential)。 1.静息电位 安静时存在于细胞膜内外两侧的电位差，称为静息电位。如图1-2 A、B所示，将连结示波器上的二个电极中的一个作为参考电极，置于枪乌贼巨大神经轴突的表面，另一个电极末端连接直径不到1微米的微细探测电极，该电极准备插入到神经纤维膜内。当微电极尚在细胞膜外面时，只要细胞未受到刺激或损伤，无论微电极置于细胞膜外任何位置，示波器上始终记录不到电位差，表明膜外各点都呈等电位;当微电极刺破细胞膜进入轴突内部时，示波器上立即显示一个突然的电压降，并稳定在这一水平上，表明膜内外两侧有电位差存在，且膜内电位较膜外为负。如果规定膜外电位为零，则膜内电位值大多在-10—-100mv之间。例如，上述的枪乌贼巨大神经轴突，其静息电位为,50—,70mv，哺乳动物神经和肌肉的静息电位为,70—,90mv，人的红细胞则为,10mv等等。 大多数细胞的静息电位是一个稳定的直流电位，只要细胞末受到外来的刺激并保持正常的新陈代谢，静息电位就稳定在一个相对恒定的水平上。生理学将静息电位存在时膜两侧所保持的内负外正状态，称为膜的极化(Polarization)。在一定的条件下，如细胞受到刺激，膜coupling Centre shall be checked, the second poured concrete strength of more than 70%. In the process of reaming or boring, apart from the special provisions in factory, does not allow any work that may affect the coupling Centre, such as irrigation, to cylinder connections to flood the condenser pipes and so on. Well boring, hinge bolt hole flange with coupling of vertical, not oblique. Mounting bolts should be added lubricants, typing gently with a small hammer, not too loose or too tight, packed the bolts with the corresponding seal screw hole should be marked. 6.4.5.4.2 coupling reamed and pairings is close to the diameter of bolt bearing good hinge holes, dressed with a good two coupling bolts before you can move the rotor, boring-reaming hole in turn. Coupling bolts must be tight coupling is symmetrical diameter, in boring, reaming, two bolts out. Well boring, hinge bolt hole flange with coupling of vertical, not oblique. Due to the coupling bolts in accordance with hinge holes corresponding to the diameter of the screw holes one by one after processing, processing back bolt installation location cannot be changed, so according to bolt after the actual weight difference of nut and lock washer to match. General requirements for coupling two symmetrical diameter bolt, nut and lock washer's total weight difference should not be greater than 10 g and knocks stamped mark. (See Figure 18) The coupling bolts apply lubricant, and then gently with copper home, not too loose or too tight. Bolt Assembly is finished, symmetrical tightening all bolts to 30%, 50%, 70%, 100% force, and check the coupling flutter and before connecting the circle gradually changes its value should be less than 0.02mm. Tightening torque of the coupling bolts shall comply with the technical requirements manufacturers drawings, with a dynamometric wrench or log tension tools. Three wheel rotor swing test coupling connections should be checked: taking leave, 的极化状态就可能发生改变。如膜内电位负值减小，称为去极化或除极化(Depolarization);相反，如膜内电位负值增大，称超极化(Hyperpolarization);膜去极化后，复又恢复到安静时的极化状态，则称复极化(Repolarization)。 图 1-2 静息电位和动作电位 2.动作电位 如果紧接上述实验，给予神经轴突一次有效刺激(上图C、D)，则在示波器上可记录到一个迅速而短促的波动电位，即膜内、外的电位差迅速减少直至消失，进而出现两侧电位极性的倒转，由静息时膜内为负膜外为正，变成膜内为正膜外为负，然而，膜电位的这种倒转是暂时的，它又很快恢复到受刺激前的静息状态。膜电位的这种迅速而短暂波动，称为动作电位(Action Potential)。如图1—3所示，动作电位的波形可分为上升支和下降支两个部分。上升支又称动作电位的除极相，其膜内电位由静息时的-70—,90mv上升到+20—+40mv。下降支又称复极相，它包括迅速复极和缓慢复极两个过程。由动作电位的除极相至复极相的迅速复极，持续时间非常短，如本实验的神经纤维，此时间约0.5—2.0ms，因而在图形上形似于尖锋状，称为锋电位(Spike Potential)。锋电位以后的缓慢复极， 持续时间较长，其变化着的电位称为后电位(Afterpotential)， 一般是先有一段持续时间约5—30ms的负后电位(Negative Afterpotential)， 再出现一段延续时间更长的正后电位(Positive Afterpotential)。动作电coupling Centre shall be checked, the second poured concrete strength of more than 70%. In the process of reaming or boring, apart from the special provisions in factory, does not allow any work that may affect the coupling Centre, such as irrigation, to cylinder connections to flood the condenser pipes and so on. Well boring, hinge bolt hole flange with coupling of vertical, not oblique. Mounting bolts should be added lubricants, typing gently with a small hammer, not too loose or too tight, packed the bolts with the corresponding seal screw hole should be marked. 6.4.5.4.2 coupling reamed and pairings is close to the diameter of bolt bearing good hinge holes, dressed with a good two coupling bolts before you can move the rotor, boring-reaming hole in turn. Coupling bolts must be tight coupling is symmetrical diameter, in boring, reaming, two bolts out. Well boring, hinge bolt hole flange with coupling of vertical, not oblique. Due to the coupling bolts in accordance with hinge holes corresponding to the diameter of the screw holes one by one after processing, processing back bolt installation location cannot be changed, so according to bolt after the actual weight difference of nut and lock washer to match. General requirements for coupling two symmetrical diameter bolt, nut and lock washer's total weight difference should not be greater than 10 g and knocks stamped mark. (See Figure 18) The coupling bolts apply lubricant, and then gently with copper home, not too loose or too tight. Bolt Assembly is finished, symmetrical tightening all bolts to 30%, 50%, 70%, 100% force, and check the coupling flutter and before connecting the circle gradually changes its value should be less than 0.02mm. Tightening torque of the coupling bolts shall comply with the technical requirements manufacturers drawings, with a dynamometric wrench or log tension tools. Three wheel rotor swing test coupling connections should be checked: taking leave, 位的主要部分是锋电位，故动作电位又称锋电位。动作电位产生后，可沿着细胞膜迅速传播，从而使整个细胞都经历一次产生动作电位过程。 图 1-3 单一神经细胞动作电位的实验模式图 (二)静息电位和动作电位产生的机制 关于膜电位的产生机制，目前证据比较充分，并为多数学者所接受的是霍奇金(Hodgkin)的离子学说。该学说认为，生物电的产生依赖于细胞膜两侧离子分布的不均匀性和膜对离子严格选择的通透性及其不同条件下的变化，而膜电位产生的直接原因是离子的跨膜运动。 表 1-1，是对膜内、外几种离子成分进行精细测定的结果。由表可见，在正离子方面，细胞内K+的浓度比细胞外高得多，相反，细胞内Na+的浓度比细胞外低得多，在负离子方面，细胞外Clˉ的浓度比细胞内的浓度为高。 然而，离子分布的这种不均匀，只为离子的跨膜运动提供了梯度，至于能否扩散和扩散量的大小则取决于膜对相应离子的通透性，或离子通道开放的程度。 大量研究证实，神经、肌肉的细胞膜上都有Na+通道和K+通道，静息时膜主要表现K+通道的部分开放，即对K+有通透性，于是，膜coupling Centre shall be checked, the second poured concrete strength of more than 70%. In the process of reaming or boring, apart from the special provisions in factory, does not allow any work that may affect the coupling Centre, such as irrigation, to cylinder connections to flood the condenser pipes and so on. Well boring, hinge bolt hole flange with coupling of vertical, not oblique. Mounting bolts should be added lubricants, typing gently with a small hammer, not too loose or too tight, packed the bolts with the corresponding seal screw hole should be marked. 6.4.5.4.2 coupling reamed and pairings is close to the diameter of bolt bearing good hinge holes, dressed with a good two coupling bolts before you can move the rotor, boring-reaming hole in turn. Coupling bolts must be tight coupling is symmetrical diameter, in boring, reaming, two bolts out. Well boring, hinge bolt hole flange with coupling of vertical, not oblique. Due to the coupling bolts in accordance with hinge holes corresponding to the diameter of the screw holes one by one after processing, processing back bolt installation location cannot be changed, so according to bolt after the actual weight difference of nut and lock washer to match. General requirements for coupling two symmetrical diameter bolt, nut and lock washer's total weight difference should not be greater than 10 g and knocks stamped mark. (See Figure 18) The coupling bolts apply lubricant, and then gently with copper home, not too loose or too tight. Bolt Assembly is finished, symmetrical tightening all bolts to 30%, 50%, 70%, 100% force, and check the coupling flutter and before connecting the circle gradually changes its value should be less than 0.02mm. Tightening torque of the coupling bolts shall comply with the technical requirements manufacturers drawings, with a dynamometric wrench or log tension tools. Three wheel rotor swing test coupling connections should be checked: taking leave, 内高浓度的K+离子顺着本身的浓度梯度向膜外扩散，而膜内的负离子大多数为大分子有机磷酸和蛋白质的离子，它们不能随K+外流。K+外流的结果使膜外聚集较多的正离子，膜内则为较多的负离子，形成膜两侧的电位差，其极性为膜外为正，膜内为负。当膜内外的电位差达到某一临界点时，该电位差又阻止K+进一步的外流。当膜的K+净通量为零，膜两侧的电位差稳定在一个水平时，即是静息电位。可见，静息时膜主要对K+有通透性和K+的外流是静息电位形成的原因。 动作电位的成因起自于刺激对膜的去极化作用。当膜去极化达到某一临界水平时(具有这种临界意义的膜电位，称阈电位)，膜对Na+和K+的通透性会发生一次短促的可逆性变化。开始，膜的Na+通道被激活，Na+通道突然打开，使膜对Na+的通透性迅速增大。Na+ 借助于电化学梯度迅速内流，导致膜内极性急剧减少，进而出现极性倒转，呈现出膜内为正、膜外为负的反极化状态。此时膜两侧的电位差亦阻止Na+内流。 当电场力的作用足以阻止Na+的继续内流时，Na+净通量为零，膜两侧形成Na+的平衡电位，该电位相当于动作电位的锋值。由此可见，动作电位上升支的形成是膜对Na+通透性突然增大和Na+的迅速大量内流所致。然而膜对Na+ 通透性增大是短暂的，当膜电位接近锋值水平时，Na+通道突然关闭，膜对Na+通透性回降，而对K+通透性增高，K+的外流，又使膜电位恢复到内负、外正的状态，形成动作电位下降支。在动作电位发生后的恢复期间，钠泵活动也增强，将内流的Na+ 排出，同时将细胞外K+移入膜内，恢coupling Centre shall be checked, the second poured concrete strength of more than 70%. In the process of reaming or boring, apart from the special provisions in factory, does not allow any work that may affect the coupling Centre, such as irrigation, to cylinder connections to flood the condenser pipes and so on. Well boring, hinge bolt hole flange with coupling of vertical, not oblique. Mounting bolts should be added lubricants, typing gently with a small hammer, not too loose or too tight, packed the bolts with the corresponding seal screw hole should be marked. 6.4.5.4.2 coupling reamed and pairings is close to the diameter of bolt bearing good hinge holes, dressed with a good two coupling bolts before you can move the rotor, boring-reaming hole in turn. Coupling bolts must be tight coupling is symmetrical diameter, in boring, reaming, two bolts out. Well boring, hinge bolt hole flange with coupling of vertical, not oblique. Due to the coupling bolts in accordance with hinge holes corresponding to the diameter of the screw holes one by one after processing, processing back bolt installation location cannot be changed, so according to bolt after the actual weight difference of nut and lock washer to match. General requirements for coupling two symmetrical diameter bolt, nut and lock washer's total weight difference should not be greater than 10 g and knocks stamped mark. (See Figure 18) The coupling bolts apply lubricant, and then gently with copper home, not too loose or too tight. Bolt Assembly is finished, symmetrical tightening all bolts to 30%, 50%, 70%, 100% force, and check the coupling flutter and before connecting the circle gradually changes its value should be less than 0.02mm. Tightening torque of the coupling bolts shall comply with the technical requirements manufacturers drawings, with a dynamometric wrench or log tension tools. Three wheel rotor swing test coupling connections should be checked: taking leave, 复原来离子浓度梯度，重建膜的静息电位。 上述动作电位的成因，已被一些实验所证实。例如，改变细胞外液钠的浓度，动作电位幅度增大，相反减少细胞外液钠的浓度，动作电位的幅度减少，说明动作电位相当于钠的平衡电位。 根据动作电位成因的分析，还可以说明各类可兴奋细胞动作电位的某些共同特征。例如，不论使用何种性质的刺激，只要达到一定的强度，它们在同一细胞所引起的动作电位的波形和变化过程是一样的，并在刺激强度超过阈值，即刺激强度再增加，动作电位幅度不变。这种现象被称为“全或无”现象。因为，动作电位只是由阈电位触发的，至于动作电位所能达到的大小，则决定于当时膜两侧离子浓度比和膜对离子的通透性，而不决定于刺激所提供的能量。 在阐述静息电位和动作电位形成时都提及膜的离子通道。现代生理学的研究表明，所谓膜的离子通道实际上是镶嵌在细胞膜脂质双分子层上的特异性蛋白质(简称通道蛋白)。通道蛋白有两个重要特征。一是它的专一性或对离子的选择通透性，即通道蛋白能提供膜的特殊孔道，有选择性地允许某种带电离子顺浓度梯度移动。通道蛋白的这一特征已被实验所证实。例如，河豚毒素可选择性阻断膜对钠的通透性，但不影响钾的通透;四乙胺和4-氨基吡啶可选择性阻断钾的通透性，而不影响钠的通透。二是它可以在一定条件下被“激活”、“失活”或“关闭”。静息时大多数通道是关闭的，只有当受到刺激时才被打开或激活，此时通道蛋白的结构中出现允许某种离子通过的孔道。根据coupling Centre shall be checked, the second poured concrete strength of more than 70%. In the process of reaming or boring, apart from the special provisions in factory, does not allow any work that may affect the coupling Centre, such as irrigation, to cylinder connections to flood the condenser pipes and so on. Well boring, hinge bolt hole flange with coupling of vertical, not oblique. Mounting bolts should be added lubricants, typing gently with a small hammer, not too loose or too tight, packed the bolts with the corresponding seal screw hole should be marked. 6.4.5.4.2 coupling reamed and pairings is close to the diameter of bolt bearing good hinge holes, dressed with a good two coupling bolts before you can move the rotor, boring-reaming hole in turn. Coupling bolts must be tight coupling is symmetrical diameter, in boring, reaming, two bolts out. Well boring, hinge bolt hole flange with coupling of vertical, not oblique. Due to the coupling bolts in accordance with hinge holes corresponding to the diameter of the screw holes one by one after processing, processing back bolt installation location cannot be changed, so according to bolt after the actual weight difference of nut and lock washer to match. General requirements for coupling two symmetrical diameter bolt, nut and lock washer's total weight difference should not be greater than 10 g and knocks stamped mark. (See Figure 18) The coupling bolts apply lubricant, and then gently with copper home, not too loose or too tight. Bolt Assembly is finished, symmetrical tightening all bolts to 30%, 50%, 70%, 100% force, and check the coupling flutter and before connecting the circle gradually changes its value should be less than 0.02mm. Tightening torque of the coupling bolts shall comply with the technical requirements manufacturers drawings, with a dynamometric wrench or log tension tools. Three wheel rotor swing test coupling connections should be checked: taking leave, 激活方式不同，离子通道可分两大类，即电压依从性的和化学依从性的。电压依从性通道对膜电位的变化很敏感，如前已述及的钠通道，当膜电位去极化达到一定水平时，该通道即被激活。化学依从性通道受化学物质(主要是神经末梢释放的化学递质)的控制，而膜电位的变化对它们没有直接影响。如兴奋在神经-肌肉接点传递中运动终板上的乙酰胆碱受体通道。离子通道开放的时间极短，如钠通道常在1ms.内就转入失活。通道失活是不同于关闭的另一种机能状态。关闭时可转入激活状态，相当于细胞的静息期或相对不应期，而失活时，则无论遇到什么刺激都不能转入激活状态，相当于兴奋后的绝对不应期。 (三)动作电位的传导 动作电位的特征之一就是它的可传导(Conduction)性，即细胞膜任何一处兴奋时，它所产生的动作电位可传播到整个细胞。如图1-4所示，对于一段无髓鞘神经纤维，当膜的某一点受到刺激产生动作电位时，该点的膜电位即倒转为内正外负，而邻近未兴奋部位仍维持内负外正的极化状态，于是，兴奋部位和邻近未兴奋部位之间将由于电位差产生局部电流，局部电流在膜外由未兴奋部位流向兴奋部位，在膜内电流方向则相反。这种局部电流构成了对邻近未兴奋部位膜的刺激，而导致兴奋的阈电位水平一般都很低，这种刺激足以使邻近未兴奋部位产生动作电位，与此同时，原兴奋部位开始复极化，兴奋也就由原兴奋部位传至其邻近部位。这一过程在细胞膜上是连续进行下coupling Centre shall be checked, the second poured concrete strength of more than 70%. In the process of reaming or boring, apart from the special provisions in factory, does not allow any work that may affect the coupling Centre, such as irrigation, to cylinder connections to flood the condenser pipes and so on. Well boring, hinge bolt hole flange with coupling of vertical, not oblique. Mounting bolts should be added lubricants, typing gently with a small hammer, not too loose or too tight, packed the bolts with the corresponding seal screw hole should be marked. 6.4.5.4.2 coupling reamed and pairings is close to the diameter of bolt bearing good hinge holes, dressed with a good two coupling bolts before you can move the rotor, boring-reaming hole in turn. Coupling bolts must be tight coupling is symmetrical diameter, in boring, reaming, two bolts out. Well boring, hinge bolt hole flange with coupling of vertical, not oblique. Due to the coupling bolts in accordance with hinge holes corresponding to the diameter of the screw holes one by one after processing, processing back bolt installation location cannot be changed, so according to bolt after the actual weight difference of nut and lock washer to match. General requirements for coupling two symmetrical diameter bolt, nut and lock washer's total weight difference should not be greater than 10 g and knocks stamped mark. (See Figure 18) The coupling bolts apply lubricant, and then gently with copper home, not too loose or too tight. Bolt Assembly is finished, symmetrical tightening all bolts to 30%, 50%, 70%, 100% force, and check the coupling flutter and before connecting the circle gradually changes its value should be less than 0.02mm. Tightening torque of the coupling bolts shall comply with the technical requirements manufacturers drawings, with a dynamometric wrench or log tension tools. Three wheel rotor swing test coupling connections should be checked: taking leave, 去，表现动作电位不断向前传导，直至传遍整个细胞。 图 1-4 动作电位传导原理示意图 上述动作电位传导机制虽然以无髓鞘神经纤维为例，但动作电位在其它可兴奋细胞的传导，基本上遵循同样的原理，比较特殊的是有髓鞘神经纤维的传导。有髓鞘神经纤维被多层较厚的髓鞘所包裹，每段髓鞘间有一个称为郎飞结的低阻抗区，动作电位产生后，局部电流是由一个郎飞结跳跃到邻近郎飞结的。因此，有髓鞘神经纤维动作电位的传导方式是跳跃式的。这种传导方式大大加快了兴奋的传导速度。 在神经纤维上传导的动作电位，习惯上称神经冲动。对神经冲动的进一步观察表明，动作电位在神经纤维的传导具有以下特征:?生理完整性。神经传导首先要求神经纤维在结构上和生理功能上都是完整的。由于一些原因(如纤维切断、机械压力、冷冻、电流、化学药品作用等)致使神经纤维局部结构或机能发生改变，神经的传导则中断。?双向传导。刺激神经纤维的任何一点，所产生的神经冲动均可沿纤维向两侧方向传导，这是因为局部电流可向两侧传导的缘故。?不衰减和相对不疲劳性。在传导过程中，锋电位的幅度和传导速度不因传导距离增大而减弱，也不因刺激作用时间延长而改变。这是因为神经传导的能量来源于兴奋神经本身。?绝缘性。在神经干内包含有许多神经纤维，而神经传导各行其道互不干扰。绝缘性主要由于髓鞘的作用。 coupling Centre shall be checked, the second poured concrete strength of more than 70%. In the process of reaming or boring, apart from the special provisions in factory, does not allow any work that may affect the coupling Centre, such as irrigation, to cylinder connections to flood the condenser pipes and so on. Well boring, hinge bolt hole flange with coupling of vertical, not oblique. Mounting bolts should be added lubricants, typing gently with a small hammer, not too loose or too tight, packed the bolts with the corresponding seal screw hole should be marked. 6.4.5.4.2 coupling reamed and pairings is close to the diameter of bolt bearing good hinge holes, dressed with a good two coupling bolts before you can move the rotor, boring-reaming hole in turn. Coupling bolts must be tight coupling is symmetrical diameter, in boring, reaming, two bolts out. Well boring, hinge bolt hole flange with coupling of vertical, not oblique. Due to the coupling bolts in accordance with hinge holes corresponding to the diameter of the screw holes one by one after processing, processing back bolt installation location cannot be changed, so according to bolt after the actual weight difference of nut and lock washer to match. General requirements for coupling two symmetrical diameter bolt, nut and lock washer's total weight difference should not be greater than 10 g and knocks stamped mark. (See Figure 18) The coupling bolts apply lubricant, and then gently with copper home, not too loose or too tight. Bolt Assembly is finished, symmetrical tightening all bolts to 30%, 50%, 70%, 100% force, and check the coupling flutter and before connecting the circle gradually changes its value should be less than 0.02mm. Tightening torque of the coupling bolts shall comply with the technical requirements manufacturers drawings, with a dynamometric wrench or log tension tools. Three wheel rotor swing test coupling connections should be checked: taking leave, (四)局部兴奋 动作电位产生的基本条件是刺激的强度必须达到阈值水平，如果刺激的强度小于阈值，虽然不能引起可传播的动作电位，但并非对细胞不产生影响。实验，此时受刺激局部Na+通道可被少量激活，使膜对Na+的通透性轻度增加，造成原有静息电位的轻度减少。由于这种电位变化小，而且只局限在受刺激的局部范围，故称为局部反应(Local Response)或局部兴奋。局部兴奋本身虽然未能达到阈电位所需要的去极化程度，不能触发动作电位的产生，但它使膜电位距阈电位的差值减小，这时如果膜再受到适当刺激，就比较容易达到阈电位而产生兴奋。 阈下刺激引起的局部兴奋有下列特点:?不是“全或无”的，它可随着刺激强度增加而增大。?只能向邻近细胞膜作电紧张性扩布。?没有不应期。?有总和现象。如在第一个阈下刺激引起的局部兴奋未消失前，紧接着给予第二个阈下刺激，两个刺激所引起的局部兴奋可叠加起来，这种局部兴奋的总和为时间总和;同样，在相邻细胞膜同时受到两个或两个以上阈下刺激时，它们所引起的局部兴奋也可以叠加起来，称为空间总和。局部兴奋的总和，可使膜电位接近直至达到阈电位水平，从而触发扩布性兴奋。 coupling Centre shall be checked, the second poured concrete strength of more than 70%. In the process of reaming or boring, apart from the special provisions in factory, does not allow any work that may affect the coupling Centre, such as irrigation, to cylinder connections to flood the condenser pipes and so on. Well boring, hinge bolt hole flange with coupling of vertical, not oblique. Mounting bolts should be added lubricants, typing gently with a small hammer, not too loose or too tight, packed the bolts with the corresponding seal screw hole should be marked. 6.4.5.4.2 coupling reamed and pairings is close to the diameter of bolt bearing good hinge holes, dressed with a good two coupling bolts before you can move the rotor, boring-reaming hole in turn. Coupling bolts must be tight coupling is symmetrical diameter, in boring, reaming, two bolts out. Well boring, hinge bolt hole flange with coupling of vertical, not oblique. Due to the coupling bolts in accordance with hinge holes corresponding to the diameter of the screw holes one by one after processing, processing back bolt installation location cannot be changed, so according to bolt after the actual weight difference of nut and lock washer to match. General requirements for coupling two symmetrical diameter bolt, nut and lock washer's total weight difference should not be greater than 10 g and knocks stamped mark. (See Figure 18) The coupling bolts apply lubricant, and then gently with copper home, not too loose or too tight. Bolt Assembly is finished, symmetrical tightening all bolts to 30%, 50%, 70%, 100% force, and check the coupling flutter and before connecting the circle gradually changes its value should be less than 0.02mm. Tightening torque of the coupling bolts shall comply with the technical requirements manufacturers drawings, with a dynamometric wrench or log tension tools. Three wheel rotor swing test coupling connections should be checked: taking leave,