古代汉语一教学辅导5：词的古义和今义

古代汉语一教学辅导5：词的古义和今义 romoting the construction of rule of law, but also the most basic development environment. Despite my good social order in General, but there are law-abiding consciousness, social order is not standard, regardless of faith, Twining visit visit and other outstanding problems. We want to actively promote the field of multi-level governance according to law, promote the continuous improvement of the social environment. To promote universal compliance. Actively foster the rule of law culture, carry out law publicity and education on honesty and trustworthiness, guide the masses and consciously abide by the law, failing to find method, problem-solving method, method of gradually changing the world, he is not looking for but someone "unspoken rules", formed all law law, abide by the good atmosphere. To strengthen the comprehensive management of public security. Deepening peace xingan construction, strongly against violence crime, mafia and serious criminal offences, to protect the legitimate rights and interests of citizens, legal persons, carry out criminal policy of temper justice with mercy, the maximum stimulating social vitality, and earnestly safeguard social harmony and stability. To resolve social conflicts by law. To further smooth channels of reporting social conditions and public opinion, improving regulation, arbitration, as well 《古代汉语一》单元辅导(5) 地方听歌放射状 古今词义的变化 古今词汇的差异还表现在词的存废和词义的变化上。所谓词的存废，是指有新词不断产生， 古今通用词，是以基本词汇为基干，在汉语史上生命力很强的词，它一直流传至今，活跃在口语 这句话的意思是不是说“吃肉的人(指有权位的贵族)卑鄙”呢,如果这样理解就错了。因为“鄙”本指边邑，边邑地处偏远，见闻闭塞，由此引申为见识短浅。 古今词义的差异可以从三个方面考察。 1(词义程度上的差异 A(词义变化显著的 词义的发展是不均衡的，经过曲折复杂的演变，使古今义之间拉大了距离，今两端，词义变化显著。如: (1)走 古义指跑，如《寡人之干国也》中“弃甲曳兵而走”“走”就是跑。败下阵来，后有敌古代义恰好相反，一般指离开某地。如《孟子?公孙丑下》:“孟子去齐。”不是孟子去到齐国，而是孟子离开齐国。今成语“扬长而去”、“拂袖而去”的“去”都是“离开”的意思。 (3)购 现代义是购买，上古汉语“购”是悬赏征求，古今义差别很大。如《史记?项羽本纪》:“吾闻汉购我头千金，邑万户。”是说用千金重赏征求项羽的头，绝不能理解为购买。可见“购”和“买”在上古不是同义词，悬赏征求的对象不是交易的商品。由于要求得，必以赏赐为前提，所以逐渐演化为购买义。 (4)行李秦的外交使节往来时郑国可以提供馆舍和资粮。 B(词义变化微殊的 romoting the construction of rule of law, but also the most basic development environment. Despite my good social order in General, but there are law-abiding consciousness, social order is not standard, regardless of faith, Twining visit visit and other outstanding problems. We want to actively promote the field of multi-level governance according to law, promote the continuous improvement of the social environment. To promote universal compliance. Actively foster the rule of law culture, carry out law publicity and education on honesty and trustworthiness, guide the masses and consciously abide by the law, failing to find method, problem-solving method, method of gradually changing the world, he is not looking for but someone "unspoken rules", formed all law law, abide by the good atmosphere. To strengthen the comprehensive management of public security. Deepening peace xingan construction, strongly against violence crime, mafia and serious criminal offences, to protect the legitimate rights and interests of citizens, legal persons, carry out criminal policy of temper justice with mercy, the maximum stimulating social vitality, and earnestly safeguard social harmony and stability. To resolve social conflicts by law. To further smooth channels of reporting social conditions and public opinion, improving regulation, arbitration, as well romoting the construction of rule of law, but also the most basic development environment. Despite my good social order in General, but there are law-abiding consciousness, social order is not standard, regardless of faith, Twining visit visit and other outstanding problems. We want to actively promote the field of multi-level governance according to law, promote the continuous improvement of the social environment. To promote universal compliance. Actively foster the rule of law culture, carry out law publicity and education on honesty and trustworthiness, guide the masses and consciously abide by the law, failing to find method, problem-solving method, method of gradually changing the world, he is not looking for but someone "unspoken rules", formed all law law, abide by the good atmosphere. To strengthen the comprehensive management of public security. Deepening peace xingan construction, strongly against violence crime, mafia and serious criminal offences, to protect the legitimate rights and interests of citizens, legal persons, carry out criminal policy of temper justice with mercy, the maximum stimulating social vitality, and earnestly safeguard social harmony and stability. To resolve social conflicts by law. To further smooth channels of reporting social conditions and public opinion, improving regulation, arbitration, as well 由于词义发展不均衡，有的变化较大，有的变化细微。变化显著的，容易引起人们的注意;变化细微的，则不易察觉，常常被人忽略，所以对这类词要格外留意。如: (1)勤 古代常用义是辛苦，辛劳，与“逸”相对;现代常用义是勤快，努力工作，与“惰”相对，古今义差别很细微。如《子路从而后》:“四体不勤，五谷不分”的“勤”是劳，劳动，而不是四肢不勤快。《说文》:“勤，劳也。” “勤”和“劳”同义词。又如《左传?襄公三十二年》:“劳师以袭远，非所闻也。师劳力竭，远主备之，无乃不可乎?师之所为， 郑必知之。勤而无所，必有悖(bèi)心。”前文说“劳师”或“师劳”，后文说“勤而无所”，“劳”和“勤”前后呼应。“勤而无所”是说军队辛劳而无所得。 (2)劝 现代义指规劝，劝说;古代义一般指鼓励，劝勉。《荀子》的“劝学”，是勉励人们学习，不是劝止人们学习。《齐晋鞌之战》:“赦之，以劝事君者。”是说赦免逢丑父，以鼓励对君主尽忠竭力，而不是劝止事奉君主。古代“劝农”、“劝蚕”都是鼓励农耕和蚕桑。可见古代“劝”的常用义是积极鼓励，而不是消极劝止。现代的规劝、劝说义是从古代劝勉义引申而来的。 (3)穷 现代义指缺少衣食钱财，与“贫”是同义词，有复音词“贫穷”;古代义一般指尽，尽头，所以字从“穴”。如《荀子?劝学》“梧鼠五技而穷。”现代成语有“无穷无尽”、“山穷水尽”，“穷”与“尽”同义对举。古代汉语另一常用义是仕途坎坷或生活困窘，不是贫穷。《庄子?德充符》:“死生存亡，穷达贫富。”这四对全是反义词，“穷”和“达”相对，“贫”和“富”相对，“穷”和“贫”不是同义词，需要仔细区分。 2(词义范围的差异 从词义演变的结果观察，新义同原义比较，在词义的范围上古今有了差异。或是有所扩大，或是有所缩小，或是原义消失而转变成新义。 A(词义扩大 从原义发展为新义，所反映客观事物的范围有所扩大，即由部分到整体，由个别到一般，由狭窄变宽泛，采取了全面扩张的方式，使原义包括在新义中，成为新义外延的一部分。 (1)睡 as dispute resolution mechanisms, implement fully the petitioners ' cases "third-party" hearings and supervising system of letters and calls, and to resolve the involved law lawsuit into the orbit of rule of law, vexatious, Twining visit visit, disturbing social order and other malicious extortion, resolutely crack down. Five, improving cadres Vitale, provide strong protection for forest development XI General Secretary stressed that the comprehensive revitalization in Northeast China, needs a high quality, solid style, cadres of the dare to play. Cadre cadres is a pledge, should want to do work and able to do good, enthusiasm is paramount. Treat party cadres, it is necessary to Strict management, and warm care, enable the broad masses of cadres work hard work, this is two parallel principles. In strict accordance with the standards of good cadres selection and appointment, the real officers, dare officers, those who want to play, good as excellent cadres at all levels of leadership in the past. At present, some leading cadres work initiative is not high, beyond political, idle, lazy governance governance, not as, slow, messy and a phenomenon still exist to varying degrees, affected and restricted economic and social development. We must mobilize the enthusiasm of cadres as an urgent task, adhere to combination of incentives and constraints, and adhere to the strict management and warm care, practical solution "for the officers not to" problem, motivate cadres and better lead the masses to an undertaking, the cadres and create the new achievement in a dare to play, good at shows as new. To identify the problem, accurate pulse. All things reflected all cadres "for the officers not to" there are 3 main romoting the construction of rule of law, but also the most basic development environment. Despite my good social order in General, but there are law-abiding consciousness, social order is not standard, regardless of faith, Twining visit visit and other outstanding problems. We want to actively promote the field of multi-level governance according to law, promote the continuous improvement of the social environment. To promote universal compliance. Actively foster the rule of law culture, carry out law publicity and education on honesty and trustworthiness, guide the masses and consciously abide by the law, failing to find method, problem-solving method, method of gradually changing the world, he is not looking for but someone "unspoken rules", formed all law law, abide by the good atmosphere. To strengthen the comprehensive management of public security. Deepening peace xingan construction, strongly against violence crime, mafia and serious criminal offences, to protect the legitimate rights and interests of citizens, legal persons, carry out criminal policy of temper justice with mercy, the maximum stimulating social vitality, and earnestly safeguard social harmony and stability. To resolve social conflicts by law. To further smooth channels of reporting social conditions and public opinion, improving regulation, arbitration, as well 古义指坐着打瞌睡。《说文》:“睡，坐寐也。”如《史记?商君列传》:“孝公既见卫鞅，语事良久，孝公时时睡，弗听。”“时时睡”指不时地打瞌睡，即“坐寐”。不是卫鞅一面陈述政见，孝公不听，躺着睡大觉。又如欧阳修《秋声赋》中有“童子莫对，垂头而睡”的话，“垂头而睡”也是垂着头打瞌睡。后来“睡”的词义扩大，由坐着打瞌睡的形式，扩展为一切形式的睡眠，不论是躺着的，还是坐着的，都叫“睡”。 (2)河 汉代以前，“河”的常用义特指黄河，一般河流用“水”来表示。如《寡人之于国也》:“河内凶，则移其民于河东，移其粟于河内。”“河内”指春秋战国时期黄河北岸，今河南沁阳县一带。“河东”指黄河以东，今山西西南部。又《鸿门宴》:“将军战河北，臣战河南。”“河北”指黄河以北，“河南”指黄河以南。如《齐桓公伐楚》:“东至于海，西至于河。”这里的“河”也指黄河。后来词义扩大，泛称一般河流。 B(词义缩小 从原义发展为新义，所反映客观事物的范围有所收敛，即由整体到部分，由一般到个别，由宽泛到狭窄，采取了全面收缩的方式，使新义包括在原义中，成为原义外延的一部分。 (1)臭 上古汉语“臭”泛指一般气味，包括香气、秽气，读作xiù。如《易经?系辞》:“同心之言，其臭如兰。”是说它的气味象兰草一样芬芳。当表示难闻的气味时，前面冠以“恶(è)”字。如《礼记?大学》:“如恶(wù)恶臭。”是说象厌恶不好闻的气味。在一定的语言环境中，不加限制词，“臭”既可以表示香气，也可以表示秽气。后来词义缩小，由泛指一般气味，到专指秽气。读作chòu. (2)宫 上古泛指房屋，不分贵贱。如《孟子?滕文公下》:“坏宫室以为污池，民无所安息。”可知宫室是民房，毁坏民宅，修造池塘，使百姓无处安身。秦汉以romoting the construction of rule of law, but also the most basic development environment. Despite my good social order in General, but there are law-abiding consciousness, social order is not standard, regardless of faith, Twining visit visit and other outstanding problems. We want to actively promote the field of multi-level governance according to law, promote the continuous improvement of the social environment. To promote universal compliance. Actively foster the rule of law culture, carry out law publicity and education on honesty and trustworthiness, guide the masses and consciously abide by the law, failing to find method, problem-solving method, method of gradually changing the world, he is not looking for but someone "unspoken rules", formed all law law, abide by the good atmosphere. To strengthen the comprehensive management of public security. Deepening peace xingan construction, strongly against violence crime, mafia and serious criminal offences, to protect the legitimate rights and interests of citizens, legal persons, carry out criminal policy of temper justice with mercy, the maximum stimulating social vitality, and earnestly safeguard social harmony and stability. To resolve social conflicts by law. To further smooth channels of reporting social conditions and public opinion, improving regulation, arbitration, as well romoting the construction of rule of law, but also the most basic development environment. Despite my good social order in General, but there are law-abiding consciousness, social order is not standard, regardless of faith, Twining visit visit and other outstanding problems. We want to actively promote the field of multi-level governance according to law, promote the continuous improvement of the social environment. To promote universal compliance. Actively foster the rule of law culture, carry out law publicity and education on honesty and trustworthiness, guide the masses and consciously abide by the law, failing to find method, problem-solving method, method of gradually changing the world, he is not looking for but someone "unspoken rules", formed all law law, abide by the good atmosphere. To strengthen the comprehensive management of public security. Deepening peace xingan construction, strongly against violence crime, mafia and serious criminal offences, to protect the legitimate rights and interests of citizens, legal persons, carry out criminal policy of temper justice with mercy, the maximum stimulating social vitality, and earnestly safeguard social harmony and stability. To resolve social conflicts by law. To further smooth channels of reporting social conditions and public opinion, improving regulation, arbitration, as well 后，“宫”的词义缩小，只有封建帝王的住宅才能称宫，一般民房不能称宫。如“阿房宫”，“未央宫”。有的寺庙也可以称宫，如“雍和宫”。 (3)亲戚 古代“亲戚”指族内外亲属，包括父母兄弟。如《列子?汤问》所载:“楚之南有炎人之国，其亲戚死，朽其肉而弃之，然后埋其骨，乃成为孝子。”这里的“亲戚”无疑指父母。又《召公谏弭谤》:“亲戚补察。”这里的“亲戚”，除父母外，还包括兄弟姊妹等。后来词义缩小，多指有婚姻关系的族外亲属。 (4)谷(穀) 古义泛指粮食作物，《说文》:“谷，百谷之总名也。”如《子路从而后》:“四体不勤，五谷不分”的“谷”，因泛指谷物，所以前面可以加数词。又如《周礼?天官?大宰》:“一日三农，生九谷。”“五谷”、“九谷”都是确指的。“五谷”一般指稻、黍(黄米)、稷、麦、豆;“九谷”指黍、稷、秫(shú)、稻、麻、大小豆、大小麦。至于说“百谷”，则是泛指的。如《诗经?豳风?七月》:“亟其乘屋，其始播百谷。”后来词义缩小了，“谷”便指今天的谷子了。 c.词义转移 词义在发展过程中，古今义之间，既没有扩大，也没有缩小，彼此不存在类属关系。词所概括的客观对象有了变化，由一事类转到另一事类，由甲范围转移到乙范围。一般说来，新义产生后，原义便消失了，而新旧义之间还具有一定的联系。 (1) 领 上古“领”指脖子。如《左传?昭公七年》:“引领北望。”是说由于盼望心切，而伸长了脖子张望。又《孟子?梁惠王下》:“天下之民皆引领而望之矣。”“引领”与上文义同。由于脖颈的部位与周围的衣领相关，所以把衣服围绕脖颈的部分称作“领”。如《荀子?劝学》:“若挈裘领。”是说象提起皮裘的领子。 as dispute resolution mechanisms, implement fully the petitioners ' cases "third-party" hearings and supervising system of letters and calls, and to resolve the involved law lawsuit into the orbit of rule of law, vexatious, Twining visit visit, disturbing social order and other malicious extortion, resolutely crack down. Five, improving cadres Vitale, provide strong protection for forest development XI General Secretary stressed that the comprehensive revitalization in Northeast China, needs a high quality, solid style, cadres of the dare to play. Cadre cadres is a pledge, should want to do work and able to do good, enthusiasm is paramount. Treat party cadres, it is necessary to Strict management, and warm care, enable the broad masses of cadres work hard work, this is two parallel principles. In strict accordance with the standards of good cadres selection and appointment, the real officers, dare officers, those who want to play, good as excellent cadres at all levels of leadership in the past. At present, some leading cadres work initiative is not high, beyond political, idle, lazy governance governance, not as, slow, messy and a phenomenon still exist to varying degrees, affected and restricted economic and social development. We must mobilize the enthusiasm of cadres as an urgent task, adhere to combination of incentives and constraints, and adhere to the strict management and warm care, practical solution "for the officers not to" problem, motivate cadres and better lead the masses to an undertaking, the cadres and create the new achievement in a dare to play, good at shows as new. To identify the problem, accurate pulse. All things reflected all cadres "for the officers not to" there are 3 main romoting the construction of rule of law, but also the most basic development environment. Despite my good social order in General, but there are law-abiding consciousness, social order is not standard, regardless of faith, Twining visit visit and other outstanding problems. We want to actively promote the field of multi-level governance according to law, promote the continuous improvement of the social environment. To promote universal compliance. Actively foster the rule of law culture, carry out law publicity and education on honesty and trustworthiness, guide the masses and consciously abide by the law, failing to find method, problem-solving method, method of gradually changing the world, he is not looking for but someone "unspoken rules", formed all law law, abide by the good atmosphere. To strengthen the comprehensive management of public security. Deepening peace xingan construction, strongly against violence crime, mafia and serious criminal offences, to protect the legitimate rights and interests of citizens, legal persons, carry out criminal policy of temper justice with mercy, the maximum stimulating social vitality, and earnestly safeguard social harmony and stability. To resolve social conflicts by law. To further smooth channels of reporting social conditions and public opinion, improving regulation, arbitration, as well (2) 涕 先秦“涕”指眼泪，不指鼻涕。如《庄子?火宗师》:“孟孙才其母死，哭泣无涕，中心不戚。”“无涕”不是没有鼻涕，而是没有眼泪。后世文言作品眼泪仍用“涕”来表示。如《出师表》:“今当远离，临表涕零，不知所言。”“涕零”指落下激动的眼泪。后来词义转移，“涕”表示鼻涕义。现代成语“破涕为笑”、“痛哭流涕”还保留古义。 3(词义感情色彩的差异 A(词义褒贬的差异 古今词义的差异，不仅表现在词义演变程度不同和范围的变 似上，而且由于风俗习尚和社会思潮的改变，往往引起人们对事物的爱憎与善恶的变化，从而影响词义褒贬的更替。由褒义变为贬义，由贬义变为褒义，或由中性词变为贬义词等，使古今词义产生了差异。如: (1)爪牙 现代义指帮凶，走狗，有种憎恶的感情色彩，是个贬义词;而古代义指武将，猛士，是个褒义词。如《汉?李广传》:“将军者，国之爪牙也。”这里以禽兽的锋牙利爪比喻李广这样的将才。后来才逐渐由褒义蜕变为贬义。 (2)谤 今义指诽谤，无中生有，恶意中伤，是个贬义词。上古汉语 “谤”没有贬义，如《召公谏弭谤》:“厉王虐，国人谤王。”“谤王”不是国人诽谤周厉王。因为他暴虐，国人背后议论他的过失，这不是恶意中伤。《左传(襄公十四年》:“士传言(庶人谤。”为纠正天子过失，士传话，庶人批评指责，也不是诽谤。又如《邹忌讽齐王纳谏》:“能谤讥于市朝，闻寡人之耳者，受下赏。”“谤”是公然的批评议论，“讥”是委婉地讽刺。齐威王下令让人们“谤讥”他的过失，而且还有赏赐，不是恶意攻击，没有贬义。 B(词义轻重的差异 从词义轻重角度看，古今词义也存在差异。有些词，古义重， romoting the construction of rule of law, but also the most basic development environment. Despite my good social order in General, but there are law-abiding consciousness, social order is not standard, regardless of faith, Twining visit visit and other outstanding problems. We want to actively promote the field of multi-level governance according to law, promote the continuous improvement of the social environment. To promote universal compliance. Actively foster the rule of law culture, carry out law publicity and education on honesty and trustworthiness, guide the masses and consciously abide by the law, failing to find method, problem-solving method, method of gradually changing the world, he is not looking for but someone "unspoken rules", formed all law law, abide by the good atmosphere. To strengthen the comprehensive management of public security. Deepening peace xingan construction, strongly against violence crime, mafia and serious criminal offences, to protect the legitimate rights and interests of citizens, legal persons, carry out criminal policy of temper justice with mercy, the maximum stimulating social vitality, and earnestly safeguard social harmony and stability. To resolve social conflicts by law. To further smooth channels of reporting social conditions and public opinion, improving regulation, arbitration, as well romoting the construction of rule of law, but also the most basic development environment. Despite my good social order in General, but there are law-abiding consciousness, social order is not standard, regardless of faith, Twining visit visit and other outstanding problems. We want to actively promote the field of multi-level governance according to law, promote the continuous improvement of the social environment. To promote universal compliance. Actively foster the rule of law culture, carry out law publicity and education on honesty and trustworthiness, guide the masses and consciously abide by the law, failing to find method, problem-solving method, method of gradually changing the world, he is not looking for but someone "unspoken rules", formed all law law, abide by the good atmosphere. To strengthen the comprehensive management of public security. Deepening peace xingan construction, strongly against violence crime, mafia and serious criminal offences, to protect the legitimate rights and interests of citizens, legal persons, carry out criminal policy of temper justice with mercy, the maximum stimulating social vitality, and earnestly safeguard social harmony and stability. To resolve social conflicts by law. To further smooth channels of reporting social conditions and public opinion, improving regulation, arbitration, as well 今义轻;有些词，古义轻，今义重。如: (1)怨 古义重，今义轻。古义除埋怨义外，一般指怨恨。如《齐桓晋文之事》:“抑王兴甲兵，危士臣，构怨于诸侯，然后快于心与,”“构怨于诸侯”是在诸侯之间结下仇恨。今义指埋怨，义轻。 (2)诛 古义轻，后起义重。古义初指责备，所以从言。如《论语?公冶长》:“于予与何诛?”是说对宰予我责备他什么呢?今成语有 “口诛笔伐”。后来词义加重，表示杀戮义。 上面我们从不同角度考察古今义差异，目的是要建立起词义发展变化的历史主义观点。还应该明确，古今义里的“古”和“今”是个相对的概念，不是截然分开的。所谓古义，不论是先秦的两汉的、六朝的、唐宋的，凡是没有流传到现代的意义都是古义。它们有的作为词素在现代复音词中保留它们的原义，或在成语中保留其原义。所谓今义，是指现代义，但许多今义不是今天才出现的，而是在历史上便产生了，不能认为凡是今义都是现代产生的。因为词义的演变不是一朝一夕发生的，而是错落不一地发生在各个语言时代，它是一个漫长的渐进的过程。 怎样学习古代汉语词汇, 1(要多读一些古文篇章，积累较为丰富的语言材料，加深感性认识。 2.在占有丰富语言材料的基础上，运用历史比较法，勤作古今对比，由感性认识上升到理性认识。 3.要重视古今注本，吸取它们在区分古今词义方面的成果，以提高辨识能力。 4.要善于应用工具书，分析词义系统的有关义项，理顺词义发展演变的脉络，明确古今词义的差异。坚持这样做，便会收到预期的效果。 以上介绍的只是一些学习方法。从根本上说，古文言是与现代汉语差异很大的语言系统，因此学习文言词汇最根本的方法是“背”。王力先生在《谈谈学习古代汉语》中说:“我们要以学习外文的方法去学习古代汉语。学外文的经验，首先强调记生词，还要背诵，把外文念得很熟，然后看见一个字、一个词，或读一本书，马上能了解它的意思。”如果不下功夫背生词，只了解一点古汉语词汇的特点，对提高阅读古书的能力是无济于事的。 as dispute resolution mechanisms, implement fully the petitioners ' cases "third-party" hearings and supervising system of letters and calls, and to resolve the involved law lawsuit into the orbit of rule of law, vexatious, Twining visit visit, disturbing social order and other malicious extortion, resolutely crack down. Five, improving cadres Vitale, provide strong protection for forest development XI General Secretary stressed that the comprehensive revitalization in Northeast China, needs a high quality, solid style, cadres of the dare to play. Cadre cadres is a pledge, should want to do work and able to do good, enthusiasm is paramount. Treat party cadres, it is necessary to Strict management, and warm care, enable the broad masses of cadres work hard work, this is two parallel principles. In strict accordance with the standards of good cadres selection and appointment, the real officers, dare officers, those who want to play, good as excellent cadres at all levels of leadership in the past. At present, some leading cadres work initiative is not high, beyond political, idle, lazy governance governance, not as, slow, messy and a phenomenon still exist to varying degrees, affected and restricted economic and social development. We must mobilize the enthusiasm of cadres as an urgent task, adhere to combination of incentives and constraints, and adhere to the strict management and warm care, practical solution "for the officers not to" problem, motivate cadres and better lead the masses to an undertaking, the cadres and create the new achievement in a dare to play, good at shows as new. To identify the problem, accurate pulse. All things reflected all cadres "for the officers not to" there are 3 main