毫无根据的信仰

nullUnit 6Unit 6Groundless BelievesAbout the textAbout the text The present text is taken from Logic for the Millions by A．E．Mander, published by The Philosophical Library，New York，1947． A.E. Mander is an English psychologist, he writes many books, such as Our Sham Democracy, Psychology for everyman and woman, Alarming Australia and so on.A selection of books by A.E. MandeA selection of books by A.E. MandenullOne thing we all do every day is express our views，state our beliefs or discuss our ideas．We say to one another：I think，I believe，I’m convinced，I’m sure，It goes without saying，It’s crystal clear，It’s as simple as ABC，No doubt．．．，etc. We may not be professional thinkers. But we all do thinking as a habit． We may not have reached the level of grade-one thinking．But we cannot avoid thinking，rightly or wrongly. nullDo we really know what we are doing and what we are thinking? Are we sure that all the beliefs we hold with conviction and accept without question are really true or well-grounded? What constitutes adequate grounds for beliefs? null The article is meant to encourage us to find out how we came by our beliefs and manage to be bold enough to test our beliefs.nullPart 1 (Para. 1) about: Part 2 (Paras. 2—21) about: Part 3 (Paras. 22—25) about: The author’s proposition of the general practice of thinking The author’s analysis of five non-rational factors in the determination of people’s opinionsThe author’s encouragement on clear, fresh and rational ways of thinking GroundGroundground: (usu. pl.) the foundation/underlying condition for an argument, a cause or good reason for sth. e.g. 1.What were his grounds for wanting a divorce? 2.Neither statement can be faulted on the grounds that it is inaccurate. (Lesson 3) groundless: a. not based on reason or evidence e.g. groundless optimism Your fear is proved to be groundless.bare: a. naked; not covered with or protected by anything; empty; just efficient, mere…bare: a. naked; not covered with or protected by anything; empty; just efficient, mere… e.g. bare arm/feet/wall/facts the bare branches of winter trees. The fridge was completely bare. Phrases: with your bare hands bare your soul: to tell your deepest and most private feelings bare your teeth: to show your teeth in a fierce and threatening way barefaced: a. 公然的，厚颜无耻的，不戴面具的 e.g. a barefaced liea shadow of: the slightest trace ofa shadow of: the slightest trace ofe.g. A shadow of a smile touched his mouth. There is not a shadow of justification for your behavior. She knew beyond a shadow of doubt that he was a _____.（愤世嫉俗的人）cynicnullThe United States is a very religious society.Top SellerHow religious are Americans?How religious are Americans?93% of Americans say they believe in God 46% attend church every week or almost every week 63% think that religion can answer all or most of today’s problems 68% claim that they are a member of a local church 7% say they have no religious preference or beliefs nullFactors in the shaping of American religious patternsFactors in the shaping of American religious patternsImmigration 移民 Proselytism 宗教劝诱 Denominationalism 宗派主义 Religious freedom 宗教自由 nullMore examplesEllipsis: a figure of speech characterized by the omission of one or more words that, while essential to the grammatical structure of the sentence, are easily supplied by the reader. nullWhat do I hear during the intervals when I do attend? (I hear) Two sorts of music. They melt into each other all the time, and (they) are not easy to christen, but I will call one of them “music that reminds me of something” and (I will call) the other “music itself”. I used to be very fond of music that reminded me of something, and (I was) especially fond of Wagner. (E. M. Forster, “Not Listening to Music”)nullIf we had grown up in a community where polygamy or head-hunting, or infanticide, or gladiatorial fighting, or dueling, was regarded as the normal and natural thing—then we should have grown up to regard it as “obviously” natural and perfectly moral and proper. (Para. 3)Polygamy, head-hunting, infanticide, gladiatorial fighting and dueling are practiced only in some communities or practiced in certain historical times. They are considered immoral, improper and abnormal elsewhere or in modern times.nullPolygamy refers to the conditions of a man having more than one wife/concubine or a woman having more than one husband at the same time. Its practice existed in many cultures in ancient times and in fact still does in some cultures today although mostly among wealthy people. However now it is considered barbarous in many countries and is prohibited by the law. nullHead-hunting refers to the practice of obtaining and preserving the heads of one’s enemies. Believed by some that the power of persons whose heads were taken was added to that already possessed by the successful warrior or his village. Once widely practiced, it is now rare. infanticiderootcide: to cut infanticide insecticide matricide patricide Suicide pesticide 杀婴 杀虫剂 杀母者 杀父者 自杀 杀虫剂nullGladiatorial fighting: Gladiators were people whose profession was to fight for the public amusement in ancient Roman times. Drawn from slaves, captives, and criminals, they were carefully trained and kept together in barracks or schools. They usually fought with nets and short swords. Gladiatorial fighting did not stop until the 5th century.History of Gladiatorial GamesHistory of Gladiatorial GamesThe first gladiatorial games were offered in Rome in 264 B.C. Gladiatorial combat became a very popular form of public spectacle very quickly in Rome. Gladiatorial GamesnullEnjoy the clip from the movie“Gladiator” .nullA more common outcome of the battle was when one gladiator went down wounded. He was allowed to raise one finger, a sign of appeal for mercy, after which the emperor decided his fate, usually in accordance with the crowd’s wishes. If the spectators desired a fighterspared, they pointed their thumbs upward, the signal for the victor to drop his sword. At the same time they shouted “Mitte! (“Spare him!”) On the other hand, if the choice was death, they Pressed their thumbs downward and yelled “lugula!” (“Cut his throat!”). nullAnother possible outcome was when one fighter killed an opponent outright; and still another when the fallen fighter pretended to be dead. Few were successful at this ruse, for soldiers finally ran out and applied hot irons to the bodies. Any fakers exposed in this way promptly had their throats cut. Then young boyscleaned the bloodstains from the sand, and whisked away the corpses, all in preparation for the next round of battles. nullNature and NurturenullHow tall might you be?Step 1 Father’s height + mother’s height (in cm). Step 2 Divide this by 2.Step 3 Add 7cm for a boy, subtract 7cm for a girl.Nature?nullHow tall might you be?Does the result equal to your real height? 2. Do you believe you are determined by the genes you inherit?nullSpotting out the truth!Directions: Decide whether the following statements are scientifically correct or not.Your eating habits are governed by your genes. It would be as easy to change your dining habits as it would to change your breathing! Genes have great influence on our ability to withstand pain. This seems to be much less related to our experiences while we are growing up. Your genes have a strong enough effect on your height. This enables you to predict what the adult height of your children should be if they are given a good diet. the percentage of body fat carried by a middle-aged woman is more determined by her genes than by diet or exercise. The need to wear glasses is not genetic. Most shortsightedness is caused by environmental influences such as using computers or reading a lots of small print. nullQuestion: Give examples of our most deeply-rooted and fundamental convictions that we happen to have been “brought up” to them.1. Money is dirty. 2. Man will struggle to conquer nature. 3. Many hands make light work. 4. We must save every penny to support our national reconstruction. 5. China is a large country with abundant natural resources.nullIt may be part of the traditional belief of the people or the race. (Para. 5)A person’s racial, cultural, national, political, class, gender, generation identity, while enabling him/her to see the world in a unique approach, also tends to limit his/her vision.nullBut we should fully face the fact that beliefs which are merely inherited from the past must have originated at a time when men knew much less than they know today. So the fact that a belief is “old” is no argument in its favor. (Para. 5)an appositive clause with “fact” as its antecedentan attributive clause with “beliefs” as its antecedentan attributive clause initiated by the relative adverb “when” with “a time” as its antecedent when: at which timenullBut we should admit that the beliefs passed on to us by our ancestors are based on the limited knowledge of the old time. Their beliefs must be lack of strong supports since it is certain that we know much more than our ancestors did. Therefore, we should not adopt a belief just because it is old.nullWhen we find ourselves entertaining an opinion about which there is a feeling that even to enquire into it would be absurd, unnecessary, undesirable or wicked—we may know that opinion is a non-rational one. (Para. 7)Another common mistake we make is to judge opinions according to our feeling. An opinion is true because it is true, not because we like it or find it desirable or useful. In fact, truth can often be unpleasant or painful whereas untruth can be soothing and attractive. That is why opinions are often bitterly debated or enthusiastically cherished, precisely because their truthfulness is not established.to realize that one is unconsciously doing sth.Synecdoche 提喻法Synecdoche 提喻法A figure of speech in which a part is used for the whole (as hand for sailor ), the whole for a part (as the law for police officer ), the specific for the general (as cutthroat for assassin ), the general for the specific (as thief for pickpocket ), or the material for the thing from which it is made (as steel for sword ). 提喻法：一种修辞方法，以局部代整体（如用手 代表 水手 ），以整体代表局部（如用 法律 代表 警官 ），以特殊代表一般（如用 直柄剃刀 代表 杀人者 ），以一般代表特殊（如用 贼 代表 扒手 ），或用原材料代表用该材料制造的东西（如用 钢 代表 剑 ） nullHe earns his bread by writing.   The farms were short of hands during the harvest season.   Outside, a sea of faces. Have you any coppers? They share the same roof. The army included two hundred horse and three hundred foot. Put Beethoven on the turntable and turn up the volume. There sits my animal guarding the door to the henhouse. A major lesson Americans need to learn is that life consists of more than cars and television sets. [Two specific items substituted for the concept of material wealth] nullMany modern persons find it very difficult to credit the fact that men can ever have supposed otherwise. Yet—they did. (Para. 10)Many modern people are hard to believe that for some time men had ever thought they were thinking with their hearts. Yet it is true that the ancient people really thought in that way.to believe the fact differentlynullAn assumed or dogmatic proposition which had been universally accepted as “obvious”; and which, when challenged, was supported by reference to a dogma of Aristotle. Until Galileo actually demonstrated the contrary, nothing could have seemed more beyond possibility or doubt. (Para. 12)It was a proposition that had been universally accepted as an obvious truth. Whenever it was challenged, it would be proved true with the strong support of Aristotle’s theory, one of the most firmly held dogmas. It would never be questioned or doubted if there was no Galileo who proved that the contrary was true by means of a demonstration.nullLet me introduce myself, I am Aristotle. I lived from 384—322 B.C., I was a pupil of Plato, another Greek philosopher. Most do not realize that I was a tutor of Alexander the Great. My authorship includes works on ethics, logic, metaphysics, natural sciences, politics, and poetry. Some say I had a profound influence on current Western thought. My philosophical system theory follows empirical observation and logic —the essential method of rational inquiry.Aristotle (384 B.C.—322 B.C.):Aristotle VS. Galileo Galileo (1564—1642)Galileo (1564—1642)Galileo was an astronomer and mathematician, born in Pisa, Italy. He entered Pisa University as a medical student in 1581, and became professor of mathematics at Padua (1592—1610), where he improved the refracting telescope (1610), and was the first to use it for astronomy. Among his other discoveries were the law of uniformly accelerated motion towards the Earth and the law that all bodies have weight. Aristotle vs. Galileowhat experiment demonstrates is that Aristotle was wrong, that no matter what the difference in weight, two heavy objects will fall simultaneously at the same speed.Aristotle vs. Galileo.consist v.consist v. a. to be made up or composed (consist in) b. have sth. as its chief element or feature (consist of) c. to be compatible; accord (consist with) Examples: New York City _________ five boroughs. The beauty of the artist’s style __________ its simplicity. True charity doesn’t __________ almsgiving. 真正的慈善不在于施舍。 The information ____________ her account.consists ofconsists inconsist inconsists withnullIndeed, he would probably be highly indignant if told of what anyone familiar with modern psychology can recognize so plainly. (Para. 14)He would surely feel furious if someone told him a plain fact that he had held some beliefs through self-interest, which anyone who is familiar with modern psychology can recognize very easily.attribute v. attribute v. a. to relate to a particular cause or source; attribute sth. to b. to regard as the work of a specified agent or creatorExamples: David attributed his company's success to the unity of all the staff and their persevering hard work. a symphony attributed to Mozart 由莫扎特创作的交响乐nullExamples: Organizing ability is essential attribute for a good manager. Lightning bolts are an attribute of Zeus. 闪电是宙斯的象征n. a. a quality or characteristic inherent in or ascribed to sb. or sth. b. an object associated with and serving to identify a character, a personage,etc.nullValued=valuable=invaluable=priceless Valueless=unvalued=worthlessnullThe lazy and stupid person can readily adopt a set of opinions without questioning why, since they clearly know that these opinions are unobtainable to them, only people who have energy and ability can be rewarded with these opinions.The lazy and bungling person can adopt a set of opinions which prove to his satisfaction that “the grapes are sour”—the “grape” being the rewards that more energetic and competent men can win. (Para. 17)an idiom describing those people who pretend to dislike what one really desires, because it is unobtainablenullA hungry Fox saw some fine bunches of Grapes hanging from a vine that was trained along a high trellis(墙/篱的格子）, and did his best to reach them by jumping as high as he could into the air. But it was all in vain, for they were just out of reach: so he gave up trying, and walked away with an air of dignity and unconcern, remarking, "I thought those Grapes were ripe, but I see now they are quite sour." ------Aesop's Fables nullIf we dislike or envy a person, we will tend to disregard or attack his opinions, from which we may acquire a strong satisfaction.What keen satisfaction we find in belittling the opinions, or attacking the opinions, of somebody of whom we are jealous, or of somebody against whom we bear a grudge! (Para.19)strong satisfactionkeen: eager; enthusiastic aboutkeen: eager; enthusiastic aboutHe is very keen to help. She is one of the keenest supporters of that team. keen is also often used before noun, it could mean quick to understand, strong or deep, or very sensitive or sharp a keen mind/intellect a keen blade. keen interest/satisfaction keen sense of smell A keen north wind belittlebelittlev.a. to represent or speak of as contemptibly small or unimportant; disparage b. to cause to seem less than another or littleExamples: The size of the office tower belittles the surrounding buildings.belittle/minimize/depreciate belittle/minimize/depreciate belittle 贬低,努力使事缩小到被轻视的地步 minimize 使事情降低到最小程度或者作用，使事情尽可能渺小 depreciate 将某人或某事价值表现为低于常有水平belittle/minimize/depreciate belittle/minimize/depreciateExamples: the habit of _________ losses in our own forces while maximizing those of the enemy He ___________ the value of experience. A poor but honest man is not to be _________.minimizing depreciatesbelittled. grudgev. a. to be reluctant to give or admit b. to resent for havingThe retired official grudged to answer the questions asked by the newsman. The brother grudged his sister her brilliant academic record.bear (have) a grudge against sb. bear (owe) sb. a grudgen. a deep-seated feeling of resentment or hatred nullAccording to the author, there are five sources for many of our groundless beliefs. What are they?1. Result of early environment 2. Parroting 3. Self-interest 4. Sentimental associations 5. Fashion nullold-fashioned a. I am old-fashioned when it comes to music. We need to replace our old-fashioned equipment. in fashion: popular at a certain time Long hair was in fashion some years ago, but people like short hair now. Mary only buys clothes that are in fashion. out of fashion: no longer popular Some girls like to wear clothes that are out of fashion.nullOnce an opinion is accepted, whatever be the cause of its acceptance, it has a strong tendency to persist. (Para. 22)no matter what the cause of its acceptance may beThis is an adverbial clause of condition-concession. In such a clause, the subjunctive mood is sometimes used when the verb is “be”.Whatever will be will beWhatever will be will beWhatever will be(主语)will be (谓语) 注:主语是由“whatever”引导的主语从句来充当,be这里作不及物动词. Whatever will be will be ==Anything that will happen will happen. 直译:任何会发生的事情都会发生. 意译:顺其自然 nullThe “brain path” becomes so well worn; the pattern of brain-centers becomes so well connected up by continual use, that the nerve current finds a route of practically no resistance, and so it always takes almost exactly the same course. (Para. 22)We tend to hold old ideas because they are familiar and make us feel secure and comfortable. They are comfortable because we are following the same brain path which offers no resistance, and our thinking tends to follow the easy path the way water flows along a course which has the least resistance. Most people suffer from mental inertia or cultural lag.thought habit; the way you always thinknerve centersgo to the dogs: to get into a very bad statego to the dogs: to get into a very bad statee.g. This firm has gone to the dogs since the new management took over. Phrases and expressions: every dog has his/its day raining cats and dogs sick as a dog let sleeping dogs lie Put on the dog.Hideous:so extremely ugly as to be terrifying Hideous:so extremely ugly as to be terrifying The arguments are tedious and complicated. Filing papers at the office is a tedious job.The criminal had committed hideous crimes. A hideous monster attacked the helpless villagers.Tedious:so lacking in interest as to cause mental weariness allowanceExamples: a travel allowance that covers hotel and restaurant bills The dealer gave us an allowance on our old car.a. sth., such as money, given at regular intervals or for a specific purpose 津贴补助 b. price reduction, especially one granted in exchange for used merchandise 让利 make allowances You make allowances for sth. or sb. when you take sb