西班牙旅游手册の西班牙艺术【英语EN】

RT...... I NA S P A I N EUROPEAN COMMUNITY European Regional Development Fund I MINISTERIO DE INDUSTRIA, TURISMO Y COMERCIO TURESPAÑA 32 Take Spain’s geographic diversity and varied landscape, take its history of invasions, migrations, expansion, conquest, and what do you get? Art, with a capital A. Spanish Art was born of the ebb and flow of civilizations that has determined Spain’s history since antiquity. New cultures with new ideas have always met, clashed, intermingled and been transformed in the great melting pot that is the Iberian peninsula. The result is a mosaic of styles, nuances, currents, colours and trends stretching over the centuries and comprising one of the world’s most enviable artistic heritages. Spanish artistic creativity has always been determined by the tension between what came from abroad and what already existed in Spain. Along with examples of each wave that has swept over the Peninsula and given it its Celtic fortresses, Romanesque monasteries, Gothic cathedrals and Renaissance palaces, one finds artistic expressions that originated in Spain and are quintessentially Spanish: the art of the prehistoric Iberians, of the Visigoths, of the Moors, of the Mudejars... For reasons of history and temperament, they could not have emerged anywhere but Spain. An inherent vitality explains why Spanish Art is as diverse as it is, and why it has played a leading role in the history of world art as a whole. Spain has given the world some of its greatest universal masters, both past and present: creative giants such as Velázquez, Zurbarán and Goya have been followed, in more modern times, by Gaudí, Picasso, Miró, Dalí, and even more recently by world-ranked names including Tapiés, Barceló and many others. To explore this wealth of creativity, to allow one’s gaze to wander across the sweeping mosaic that is Spain, its landscapes, and its art, is to embark on a fantastic visual adventure. Taüll (Lleida). Church of Sant Climent Madrid. Prado Museum. Velázquez: “Las Meninas” Barcelona. Marès Museum. Roman statue Barcelona. Marès Museum. Romanesque carving Madrid. Centro de Arte Reina Sofía National Museum. Pablo R. Picasso: “Guernica” (1937) Valencia. Marqués de Dos Aguas Palace A r t i n S p a i n A M O S A I C O F A R T 54 HE first artists of Iberia gave us mysterious and beautiful cave paintings. Later, peoples from distant lands arrived over the centuries to add their own contributions to the artistic heritage of Spain. Finally, the Roman Empire left its indelible stamp on Spanish culture and art. T Paintings in caves, such as Altamira, or in rock shelters, such as Albarracín, signal the birth of art on the Iberian Peninsula. They would be followed much later by Neolithic pottery, settlements, stone dolmens and funeral chambers. In the beginning, there was art In a time long forgotten a man created the birth certificate of Spanish art on the ceiling of a cave in northern Spain. The genius responsible for the cave paintings of Altamira may have worn rough clothes and communicated with grunts, but the only thing that separates him from Pablo Picasso is time –15,000 years of it. The paintings were discovered by accident when a Spanish aristocrat and his young daughter were exploring the cave in 1875. “Cows!”, the girl exclaimed when she saw the beautifully traced representations of bison. So perfect and so well preserved were the paintings that at first experts were reluctant to accept them as authentic. Many similar examples were subsequently discovered in northern Spain. Prehistoric art from a later date, in caves and rock shelters in eastern and southern Spain, are much different in character: schematic, almost abstract renditions of hunting scenes, accompanied by undecipherable symbols. As time progressed, prehistoric man left further samples of his skill, in prehistoric ceramic vases that can be seen in museums all over Spain. And from the Neolithic period, there are astounding megalithic constructions, such as the dolmens of La Menga and El Romeral in Antequera (Málaga), funeral chambers built, no one knows how, with massive stone slabs weighing many tons. Similar structures exist elsewhere in Andalusia, and in Catalonia, Aragon, Galicia, Extremadura and Álava. Albarracín (Teruel). Rock shelter in Las OlivanasSantillana del Mar (Cantabria). Altamira caves Coaña prehistoric settlement (Asturias) CROSSROADS OF ANCIENT CULTURES Antequera (Málaga). Menga dolmen 6 was influenced by peoples who arrived by sea, and it achieved such sophistication that it still amazes the experts. For who can explain how a supposedly backward people could create such masterpieces as the Dama de Elche or the Dama de Baza, busts representing priestesses or goddesses, along with sculptures of fantastic animals, ingenious figurines and charms that can be seen in the National Archeological Museum in Madrid and in local museums such as the Alicante Museum, Elda Museum, Alcoy Museum or the Museum of Prehistory in Valencia? The Treasure of Carambolo and other vestiges displayed in the Archeological Museum of Seville are attributed to a mysterious civilization, the fabled kingdom of Tharsis or Tartessos, mentioned in the Bible and believed to have flourished in the area 3,500 years ago. The dawn of civilization Megalithic constructions were to become more complex with the arrival of the Bronze Age. Menorca is so well endowed with examples of “talayots” (defensive towers), “taulas” (a kind of altar) and “navetas” or funeral chambers such as Es Tudons that the entire island is an open air museum of prehistoric architecture. By the Iron Age, what we can consider to be Iberian Art had acquired a well-defined identity, though it varied in character from one region to another. In the north the influence of the first great European civilization, the Celts, is seen in fortresses and settlements of Galicia, amongst whose ruins the exquisitely fashioned jewels on display in the Museum of Pontevedra were discovered. In the central regions of Spain, early artists created sculptures of totemic animals, including the Bulls of Guisando (Ávila). The art of the Mediterranean coastline During the so-called Iron Age the art of Iberia began to take on a well-defined identity: in the north, Celtic culture left stone reliefs and stylized jewelry, while in the centre of Iberia there is an abundance of totemic animals, and to the south figures of deities and priestesses show the influence of peoples who arrived by sea. They came from the sea Since antiquity, Spain has attracted traders and invaders, who settled here and enriched Iberia’s growing artistic heritage. Phoenician merchants, Greeks colonists, Carthaginians all left traces. The Phoenicians, more interested in commerce and navigation, were not essentially creators of art, but they were vital in spreading it among the lands they visited, which included the entire Mediterranean coastline. The most typical expression of their art are sculpted sarcophagi such as those discovered in one of their earliest colonies, Gadir (present-day Cádiz). Other colonies they established on Iberia’s coast were Ibusim (Ibiza), Sexi (Almuñécar), and Abdera (Adra). Adventurous Greeks followed in the wake of the Phoenicians, settling along the Mediterranean coast, especially in the north. They established colonies in Rohdes (Roses) and, most notably, Emporion (Empuries), in Girona, where two Greek settlements share a site with a later Roman colony. Little is left of the passing of the Carthaginians, heirs of the Phoenicians who founded Cartago Nova (New Carthage) at Cartagena on the eastern coast. In Spain, as in the main city of Carthage in northern Africa, their bitter enemies the Romans were especially thorough in wiping out any trace of the Carthaginians, although a few remnants survive, including several necropolis and reliefs such as that of Osuna. El Tiemblo (Ávila). Bulls of Guisando Barros (Cantabria). Celtic stele Mahón (Menorca). Es Tudons funeral chamber Seville. Archeological Museum. The Treasure of Carambolo Madrid. Archeological Museum. The Dama de Elche Pontevedra Museum. Gold collar 98 Rome’s victory over Carthage was a major turning point. In Spanish art, as in its history, there is a before and an after the Romans’ arrival. In a relatively short period, the land Rome called Hispania was to be transformed into one of the key pieces in the Empire, birthplace of many prominent Romans, including the emperors Hadrian, Trajan and Theodisius, or great thinkers and writers such as Seneca, Martial and Lucan. The Romans ruled Iberia for more than six centuries, and their influence on everything from law and language to art and agriculture is impressive. They were above all builders with a flair for daring feats of engineering. They endowed Spain with paved roads (some of the ancient routes are still in use). They built bridges across rivers, in Alcántara, Ourense, Córdoba, Mérida, Salamanca... They transported water for miles with their aqueducts, ranging from the awe-inspiring constructions in Segovia and Mérida to more modest ones in remote areas of Spain. They built ports. They dug mines and quarries such as Las Medulas (Bierzo- León) and El Medol (Tarragona). And once in a while they allowed themselves the indulgence of building a triumphal arch, including those at Bará (Tarragona), Medinaceli (Soria), and Cáparra (Cáceres). The cities they founded thrived long after the Romans left, so much of what they built lies buried under later constructions. Even so, in colonies like Barcino, Tarraco or Emerita Augusta –today’s Barcelona, Tarragona and Mérida– fine examples of Roman building share space with later architecture. Strangely, it is in the ruins of isolated “fundi” or country estates (examples exist in Burgos, Palencia and Toledo) and in those cities that were abandoned where one can best ponder on the rise and fall of the Roman empire; ghost towns such as Empuries in Girona, Clunia (Soria), Segóbriga (Cuenca), Italica (Seville) and Acinipo (Málaga), where the cry of a raven is all that is heard in amphitheatres that once echoed to a thousand voices. The Roman legacy shows in every aspect of life in Iberia, from great bridges and aqueducts to small details like the tiles that decorated the floors of Roman homes, or the design of a simple doll. The Empire builders Segovia. Roman aqueduct Tarragona. Bará Arch Itálica (Seville). Roman mosaic Mérida (Badajoz). Museum of Roman ArtMérida (Badajoz). Museum of Roman ArtMérida (Badajoz). Milagros Roman Aqueduct Despite the ravages of time, Spain is blessed with many examples of well-preserved Roman buildings. There are towers, walls and fortifications, some as complete as the walled city of Lugo and the Archeological Promenade of Tarragona. There are Roman baths and waterworks. There are temples (Córdoba, Vic). There are tombs, mausoleums (the Tower of the Scipios, Tarragona) and entire necropolis (the one in Carmona is exceptional). Above all, there are the emblematic theatres, amphitheatres and circuses, such as those in Mérida, Sagunto, Clunia, Italica and Tarragona, to mention a few of the most impressive ones. Monumental buildings aside, Roman art is especially rich in decorative elements and items of everyday use: sculptures, reliefs, mosaics, vases, coins, weapons, utensils, jewels, furniture, and other objects that filled their cities and homes. Roman statuary in particular achieved a high degree of perfection in Hispania. Museums such as the striking Moneo-designed Museum of Roman Art in Mérida or that of Tarragona (housed in the praetorian tower within the city’s Roman ruins) are vital for understanding Spain’s Latin legacy. Other outstanding collections are on display in the museums of Barcelona, Zaragoza, Seville, Madrid, and Toledo. The legacy of Rome 1110 The early Christians adopted pagan images and symbols, endowing them with a new meaning, such as the Good Shepherd which shares space with Biblical scenes, including Daniel in the lion’s den, on the Écija Sarcophagus. The Christian revolution In the last years of Empire, when the peninsula was enjoying a complacent period of peace and civility, a new form of thinking was to shake the established order. Rome had absorbed many different religions in the past, but in Christianity it faced a veritable social revolution. Christianity took root quickly in Hispania, and the new movement was to affect artistic output. Basilicas and baptisteries such as those in Son Bou (Menorca), Son Pereto (Manacor) or Santa María de Tarrasa or the curious cupola of Centcelles (Tarragona) are examples of early Christian art. In particular, in their sarcophagi one sees the perfect marriage of Christian and classic art forms. There are some magnificent examples in museums, but one also finds them in the most unexpected places: converted into an altar in Écija, embedded in a wall in San Feliú (Girona)... And the horseshoe arches seen in some early Christian constructions are a prelude to what the following centuries were to bring. LIGHT IN THE DARK AGES HE collapse of the Roman Empire brought about the so-called “Dark Ages”, yet the flame of creativity continued to burn on the Iberian peninsula. Invading Visigoths merged with Hispano-Romans, giving shape to a culture that would prepare the way for the artistic movements of the Middle Ages, when Romanesque and Gothic would inspire some of the great monuments of Spain. T Écija (Seville). Church of Santa Cruz. Details of early Christian sarcophagus San Juan de las Abadesas (Girona). “Most Holy Mystery” Santo Domingo de Silos (Burgos). Monastery Burgo de Osma (Soria). Cathedral. Tomb of San Pedro of Osma 1312 The unknown art of the Visigoths The arrival of northern European tribes sounded the death knell for the already crumbling western Roman empire. Awed by superior Roman culture, these so-called “barbarians” adopted classical art forms, but nevertheless added their own touches. The interaction between the Hispano-Romans of the Iberian peninsula and the newly arrived Visigoths gave birth to a new, indigenous culture. Sandwiched as they are between two great civilizations –the Romans and the Moors of Al-Andalus– the Visigoths and their art are generally ignored, relegated to footnotes in art history books. But a visit to the Museum of Visigothic Culture in what was once their capital, Toledo, dispels the notion that Visigothic culture had nothing to offer. Most remnants date from the 7th century. Outside Toledo, only a few isolated buildings or simple reliefs remain of the Visigoths. There are churches, either with a basilica plan, as in San Juan de Baños (Palencia), or cruciform plan, as in Santa Comba de Bande (Ourense) and San Pedro de la Nave (Zamora). The capitals and reliefs in this last church, as those of Quintanilla de las Viñas (Burgos), show a stylized spirituality that hints at the symbolism which would follow during the Middle Ages. The birth of Romanesque art Arab and Berber armies arrived from North Africa in 711, defeating the Visigothic King Roderick, and, within a few years, had occupied the entire Iberian peninsula save for a few isolated pockets of resistance in the mountains of northern Spain. That part of Spain never under Muslim rule was the birthplace of a peculiar pre-Romanesque style known as Asturian art, or Ramirense art (after King Ramiro, who ruled the Kingdom of Asturias in the 9th century). A score of churches scattered in the hills of Asturias include such charming examples as Santa María del Naranco or San Miguel de Lillo. This art coincided in time with the Carolingian renaissance in the Frankish empire, the harbinger of Romanesque art. Some churches in Catalonia, in the Frankish-controlled Spanish March which straddled the Pyrenees, also are a prelude to the new spiritualism that was taking hold in Europe. The sweeping influence of the Cluniac reform and the comings and goings of pilgrims spread Romanesque art across Europe. Such was the force of this artistic movement that it was fairly uniform throughout the continent, yet on the peninsula, where Romanesque thrived in the 11th and 12th centuries, it showed Visigothic and pre-Romanesque influences and even borrowed from the culture of the Moors of southern Spain. Visigothic culture and, later, Asturian or Ramirense art are expressions of local creativity that were a prelude to the Romanesque style about to sweep Europe. Oviedo (Asturias). Church of Santa María del Naranco Oviedo (Asturias). Church of San Miguel de Lillo Pola de Lena (Asturias). Church of Santa Cristina de LenaCampillo (Zamora). Church of San Pedro de la Nave Campillo (Zamora). Church of San Pedro de la Nave 1514 The age of monasteries During the 12th century, sculpture had a decorative and didactic function, mainly in the form of facades and capitals. In an age when literacy was the exception, the figures on the facade of the Ripoll monastery constituted an illustrated Bible for the unlettered populace. The capitals of Sant Pere de Galligans, San Juan de las Abadesas, San Cugat del Valles or the cloisters of the Girona and Tarragona cathedrals also fulfilled an educational purpose. In Navarre and Aragon there are exceptional examples in the churches of San Pedro el Viejo and San Juan de la Peña (Huesca), Sangüesa and San Miguel de Estella, and, in central Spain, the cloister of Silos monastery and the marvellous Jacobean facade of Carrión de los Condes (Palencia). Spain also contributed some of the finest known examples of Romanesque painting, especially in frescoes, altar frontals and miniatures illustrating illuminated codices. Barcelona’s Museum of Catalonia has one of the world’s finest collections of Romanesque art, though there are many treasures as well in the museums of Vic and Jaca. To these one must add the frescoes of the Pantheon of San Isidoro in Leon or the archaic figures, with Mozarab touches, of Maderuelo and San Baudelio de Berlanga (Prado Museum). Towards the end of the 12th century, France was shaken by another upheaval: the Cistercian reform, which sought a return to greater austerity and severity. Monasteries from this period were veritable cities devoted entirely to prayer and work: Poblet, Santes Creus, Fitero, Veruela, Iranzu, Piedra, Las Huelgas, Santa María de Huerta, Oya, Osera... At the same time, architects were turning their hand to secular constructions, especially in Catalonia, for instance the Old Quarter of Besalú or the frontier castles erected on land reclaimed from the Moors. The Christians’ southward advance was unstoppable, reaching as far as Córdoba and Seville, conquered by King Ferdinand III in 1236 and 1248. Here we can see examples of churches of what could be termed “Fernandino” design, a transitional style in which one can appreciate how Romanesque was already giving way to another great medieval movement: Gothic art. The Pantocrator - Christ represented as Ruler of the Universe - surrounded by the symbols of the four Evangelists, carved in stone tympanums or in the frescoes of apses, sums up the schematic character of Romanesque Art. The way of Saint James The pilgrim route to the shrine of Saint James in Santiago de Compostela, walked by millions during the Middle Ages, was crucial in the spread of Romanesque art across Christian Spain. Many great constructions sprung up along the “Jacobean Way”: the cathedral in Jaca, San Martín de Frómista (Palencia), San Isidoro de León or, the grandest example of a Romanesque cathedral in all of Spain, the shrine of Saint James in Santiago itself. Maestro Mateo’s Portico of Glory is a medieval symphony in stone, a masterpiece that has its predecessors in sculptural works such as the porticos of San Vicente in Avila, and San Pedro el Viejo and Santa Cruz de Serós in Huesca. Also worth mentioning as examples of 11th century Romanesque