为了正常的体验网站,请在浏览器设置里面开启Javascript功能!
首页 > 康德

康德

2009-11-29 32页 doc 246KB 30阅读

用户头像

is_596078

暂无简介

举报
康德Immanuel Kant 伊曼努尔·康德 Born 22 April 1724 Königsberg, Prussia Died 12 February 1804 (aged 79) Königsberg, Prussia   School/tradition Kantianism, enlightenment philosophy 【学派、传统】康德主义、启蒙哲学 Main interests Epistemology, Metaphysics, Ethics, Logic 【主要兴趣】认识论、形而上学、伦理学、逻辑...
康德
Immanuel Kant 伊曼努尔·康德 Born 22 April 1724 Königsberg, Prussia Died 12 February 1804 (aged 79) Königsberg, Prussia   School/tradition Kantianism, enlightenment philosophy 【学派、传统】康德主义、启蒙哲学 Main interests Epistemology, Metaphysics, Ethics, Logic 【主要兴趣】认识论、形而上学、伦理学、逻辑学 Notable ideas Categorical imperative, Transcendental Idealism, Synthetic a priori, Noumenon, Sapere aude, Nebular hypothesis 【著名思想】绝对命令、先验唯心主义、先验综合、本体、勇敢求知、星云假说 Influenced by 【所受影响】 Wolff, Baumgarten, Tetens, Hutcheson, Empiricus, Montaigne, Hume, Descartes, Malebranche, Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, Rousseau, Newton, Emanuel Swedenborg 沃尔夫、鲍姆加滕、特滕斯、霍彻森、恩披里柯、蒙田、休谟、笛卡尔、勒伯朗士、斯宾诺莎、莱布尼茨、洛克、贝克莱、卢梭、牛顿、伊曼纽尔·史威登保 Influenced  【影响】 Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, Peirce, Husserl, Heidegger, Wittgenstein, Sartre, Cassirer, Habermas, Rawls, Chomsky, Nozick, Karl Popper, Kierkegaard, Jung, Searle, Michel Foucault, Hannah Arendt, Giovanni Gentile, Karl Jaspers, Hayek, Bergson, Ørsted, A.J. Ayer, Emerson, Weininger, P.F. Strawson, Leo Strauss, Hilary Putnam, John McDowell      费希特、谢林、黑格尔、叔本华、尼采、皮尔士、胡塞尔、海德格尔、维特根斯坦、萨特、卡西尔、哈贝马斯、罗尔斯、乔姆斯基、诺齐克、卡尔·波普尔、克尔恺郭尔、荣格、塞尔、米歇尔·福柯、汉娜·阿伦特、乔万尼·金蒂莱、卡尔·雅斯帕斯、哈耶克、柏格森、A.J.艾耶尔、爱默生、魏宁格、P.F.斯特劳森、利奥·施特劳斯、希拉里·普特南、约翰·麦克道尔 Immanuel Kant (22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was an 18th-century German philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia). He is regarded as one of the most influential thinkers of modern Europe and of the late Enlightenment.      伊曼努尔·康德(1724.4.22-1804.2.12),18世纪德国哲学家,家住哥尼斯堡【现在的俄国的加里宁格勒--Калининград】的普鲁士城。他被公认为近代欧洲和后期启蒙运动的最有影响的思想家之一。 Kant created a new widespread perspective in philosophy which influenced philosophy through the 21st Century. He also published important works of epistemology, as well as works relevant to religion, law, and history. His most important work is the Critique of Pure Reason, an investigation into the limitations and structure of reason itself. It encompasses an attack on traditional metaphysics and epistemology, and highlights Kant's own contribution to these areas. The other main works of his maturity are the Critique of Practical Reason, which concentrates on ethics, and the Critique of Judgment, which investigates aesthetics and teleology.      康德开创了一种影响直到21哲学的哲学观点。他出版重要的认识论著述,也发与认识论、法律和历史有关的著述。他最重要的作品《纯粹理性批判》,是对理性自身的限制与结构的研究。其中包含对传统形而上学和认识论的批判,也彰显了康德对这些领域的贡献。他壮年期的其他主要著作是《实践理性批判》--主要研究伦理学—和《判断力批判》—研究美学和目的论。 Pursuing metaphysics involves asking questions about the ultimate nature of reality. Kant suggested that metaphysics can be reformed through epistemology. He suggested that by understanding the sources and limits of human knowledge we can ask fruitful metaphysical questions. He asked if an object can be known to have certain properties prior to the experience of that object. He concluded that all objects about which the mind can think must conform to its manner of thought. Therefore if the mind can think only in terms of causality – which he concluded that it does – then we can know prior to experiencing them that all objects we experience must either be a cause or an effect. However, it follows from this that it is possible that there are objects of such nature which the mind cannot think, and so the principle of causality, for instance, cannot be applied outside of experience: hence we cannot know, for example, whether the world always existed or if it had a cause. And so the grand questions of speculative metaphysics cannot be answered by the human mind, but the sciences are firmly grounded in laws of the mind.      他研究形而上学涉及到对实在终极性质问的追问。康德表示,形而上学可通过认识论得以重建。他认为,通过领悟人类知识的来源和限制,我们能够求索丰富的形而上学问题。他追问是否可先于对对象的经验而直到其具有某些性质。他断言,所有思想可以思考的对象一定与思考方式相一致。因此,如果思想只根据因果关系思考—他断言就是这样,那么我们就能先验地知道,我们经验的所有对象一定非因即果。可是,从此亦可推论出:可能存在其性质不可想象的对象,比如因果关系的原理就不能应用于经验之外,比方说,我们不可能知道世界是始终存在的还是产生的。所以,重要的思辨形而上学问题是人的思想不能回答的,而科学则牢牢地立足于思想定律。 Kant believed himself to be creating a compromise between the empiricists and the rationalists. The empiricists believed that knowledge is acquired through experience alone, but the rationalists maintained that such knowledge is open to Cartesian doubt and that reason alone provides us with knowledge. Kant argues, however, that using reason without applying it to experience will only lead to illusions, while experience will be purely subjective without first being subsumed under pure reason.     康德认为自己是在经验主义者与理性主义者之间进行折衷。经验主义者认为知识只能通过经验获得,而理性主义者则坚持这样知识受到笛卡尔的怀疑,只有理性才为我们提供知识。可是,康德主张,不诉诸于经验而使用理性只能导致幻觉,而经验若非首先归之于纯粹理性之下就是纯粹主观的。 Kant’s thought was very influential in Germany during his lifetime, moving philosophy beyond the debate between the rationalists and empiricists. The philosophers Fichte, Schelling, Hegel and Schopenhauer each saw themselves as correcting and expanding the Kantian system, thus bringing about various forms of German idealism. Kant continues to be a major influence on philosophy to this day, influencing both analytic and continental philosophy.      康德的思想在其一生在德国十分有影响,他让哲学走出了理性主义者与经验主义者的争论。费希特、谢林、黑格尔和叔本华等哲学家每个人都认为自己是在纠正并扩展康德的体系,从而产生了各种形式的德国唯心主义。直至今日,康德依然对哲学有重大影响,他对哲学和大陆哲学都有影响。 Biography 生平 Immanuel Kant was born in 1724 in Königsberg, the capital of Prussia at that time, today the city of Kaliningrad in the Russian exclave of Kaliningrad Oblast. He was the fourth of eleven children (five of them reached adulthood). Baptized 'Emanuel', he changed his name to 'Immanuel'  after learning Hebrew. In his entire life, he never traveled more than a hundred miles from Königsberg. His father Johann Georg Kant (1682–1746) was a German craftsman from Memel, at the time Prussia's most northeastern city (now Klaipėda, Lithuania). His mother Anna Regina Porter (1697–1737) was German, the daughter of a Scottish saddle maker. Johann Georg Kant was born in Memel, a harness maker like his grandfather (who had emigrated from Scotland) and his great grandfather before him. Kant's grandfather immigrated from Scotland to East Prussia and even his father spelled their family name "Cant.". In his youth, Kant was a solid, albeit unspectacular, student. He was raised in a Pietist household that stressed intense religious devotion, personal humility, and a literal interpretation of the Bible.       伊曼努尔·康德1724年生于当时的普鲁士首府哥尼斯堡—而今加里宁格勒省俄国特区的加里宁格勒城。他是家里11个孩子(其中5个成人)中的老四。学习希伯来文以后,他把教名“Emanuel”--伊曼纽尔改成“Immanuel”--伊曼努尔。在他的整个一生中,他从未离开格尼斯堡超过100英里。其父约翰·乔治·康德(1682-1746)是梅梅尔—那时普鲁士最东北部的城市---现在立陶宛的克莱佩达—的手工艺人。其母安娜·瑞加纳·波特(1697-1737)是德国人,英格兰马鞍制造商的女儿。约翰·乔治·康德生在梅梅尔,和其从苏格兰迁居的祖父、曾祖父一样是马具制造商。康德的祖父从苏格兰迁居东普鲁士,他父亲甚至把其家姓拼写为“Cant”。年轻时,康德虽然不引人注意,但他是个很好的学生。他在强调强烈宗教献身、个人谦恭以及对《圣经》进行文字解释的虔信派教徒家庭长大。 Consequently, Kant received a stern education – strict, punitive, and disciplinary – that preferred Latin and religious instruction over mathematics and science.     所以,康德受的是苛刻的教育—严厉的、惩罚的和戒律的教育,这种教育偏爱拉丁文和宗教教育胜过数学和科学。 The Young Scholar   年轻学者 Kant showed a great aptitude to study at an early age. He was first sent to Collegium Fredericianum and then enrolled at the University of Königsberg (where he would spend his entire career) in 1740, at the age of 16. He studied the philosophy of Leibniz and Wolff under Martin Knutzen, a rationalist who was also familiar with developments in British philosophy and science and who introduced Kant to the new mathematical physics of Newton. Knutzen dissuaded Kant from the theory of pre-established harmony, which he regarded as "the pillow for the lazy mind". He also dissuaded the young scholar from idealism, which was negatively regarded by most philosophers in the 18th century. The theory of transcendental idealism that Kant developed in the "Critique of Pure Reason" is not traditional idealism, i.e. the idea that reality is purely mental. In fact, Kant produced arguments against traditional idealism in the second part of the "Critique of Pure Reason". His father's stroke and subsequent death in 1746 interrupted his studies. Kant became a private tutor in the smaller towns surrounding Königsberg, but continued his scholarly research. 1749 saw the publication of his first philosophical work, Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces.       年少时康德展现出巨大的学习天赋。他一开始被送到菲特烈中学,后来1740年他16岁时被格尼斯堡大学录取,他在次大学度过了他的整个职业生涯。他在马丁·克努岑的指导下学习莱布尼茨与沃尔夫哲学,克努岑是以为理性主义者,他熟悉哲学与科学在英国的发展并向康德介绍牛顿的新精确物理学。克努岑劝阻康德从事先定和谐论,他认为这种理论是“懒惰思想的枕头”。他也劝阻这位年轻的学子从事唯心主义,此中哲学受到绝大部分18世纪哲学家的否定。康德在《纯粹理性批判》中提出的先验唯心主义理论并非传统的唯心主义,即实在是纯粹精神的思想。事实上,康德在《纯粹理性批判》的第二部分对传统唯心主义进行了反驳。父亲中风以及后来1746年的死中断了他的研究。康德在格尼斯堡周边的小镇当私人家庭教师,但仍然继续学术研究。1749年他的第一部哲学作品--《对生命力的基本评价》出版。 Kant is best known for his transcendental idealist philosophy that time and space are not materially real but merely the ideal a priori condition of our internal intuition. But what is not well known is that Kant is responsible for an important astronomical discovery, namely the discovery of the retardation of the rotation of the Earth, for which he won the Berlin Academy Prize in 1754. Even more importantly, from this Kant concluded that time is not a thing in itself determined from experience, objects, motion, and change, but rather an illusion of the human mind that preconditions possible experience.       康德因其先验论哲学而最为知名,此哲学认为时空并非物质实在,而只不过是我们先验地内在直觉的观念形态。但是鲜为人知的是康德做出的重要天文学发现,即地球自转减速的发现,为此他1754年获得了柏林科学院奖。更重要的是康德从此得出结论,时间本质上并不是由经验、物体、运动和变化决定的东西,而是预处理可能经验之人的思想的幻觉。 According to Lord Kelvin: "Kant pointed out in the middle of last century, what had not previously been discovered by mathematicians or physical astronomers, that the frictional resistance against tidal currents on the earth's surface must cause a diminution of the earth's rotational speed. This immense discovery in Natural Philosophy seems to have attracted little attention,--indeed to have passed quite unnoticed, --among mathematicians, and astronomers, and naturalists, until about 1840, when the doctrine of energy began to be taken to heart." -- Lord Kelvin, physicist, 1897      按照开尔文勋爵所说:康德在上个世纪中叶指出,对地球表面的潮汐的摩擦阻力必定导致地球自转速度的降低,这是数学家或物理天文学家原先没有发现的东西。这一自然哲学的重大发现几乎没有引起注意,实际上在数学家、天文学家和博物学家中直到1840前后年都是十分遭到忽视的,那时能量学说开始居于核心地位。 He became a university lecturer in 1755. The subject on which he lectured was "Metaphysics"; the course textbook was written by A.G. Baumgarten.    1755年,康德成为大学讲师。他讲的科目是“形而上学”,这门课的教材由A.G.鲍姆加滕撰写。 According to Thomas Huxley: "The sort of geological speculation to which I am now referring (geological aetiology, in short) was created as a science by that famous philosopher, Immanuel Kant, when, in 1775 [1755], he wrote his General Natural History and Theory of the Celestial Bodies; or, an Attempt to Account for the Constitutional and Mechanical Origin of the Universe, upon Newtonian Principles." -- Thomas H. Huxley, 1869      按照托马斯·赫胥黎的说法:“我现在所指的这种地质学论段【简单地说,地质成因论】是由著名哲学家伊曼努尔·康德在1775【1755年】提出的,他撰写了他的《宇宙发展史概论》。” In the General History of Nature and Theory of the Heavens (1755), Kant laid out the Nebular hypothesis, in which he deduced that the Solar System formed from a large cloud of gas, a nebula. He thus attempted to explain the order of the solar system, seen previously by Newton as being imposed from the beginning by God. Kant also correctly deduced that the Milky Way was a large disk of stars, which he theorized also formed from a (much larger) spinning cloud of gas. He further suggested the possibility that other nebulae might also be similarly large and distant disks of stars. These postulations opened new horizons for astronomy: for the first time extending astronomy beyond the solar system to galactic and extragalactic realms.        在《宇宙发展史概论》 中,康德提出了“星云假说”,认为太阳系源自一大团气体星云。他试图解释太阳系的秩序,这种秩序以前被牛顿看成是由上帝创世的。康德也正确地推论:银河系是庞大的星盘,他推断这些也源自更大的旋转的的气体云。他进一步揭示了其他星云形成类似的庞大而遥远的星盘的可能性。这些猜测为天文学开创了崭新的视角:第一次把天文学从太阳系扩展到银河与外银河领域。 From this point on, Kant turned increasingly to philosophical issues, although he continued to write on the sciences throughout his life. In the early 1760s, Kant produced a series of important works in philosophy. The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures, a work in logic, was published in 1762. Two more works appeared the following year: Attempt to Introduce the Concept of Negative Magnitudes into Philosophy and The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God. In 1764, Kant wrote Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime and then was second to Moses Mendelssohn in a Berlin Academy prize competition with his Inquiry Concerning the Distinctness of the Principles of Natural Theology and Morality (often referred to as "the Prize Essay"). In 1770, at the age of 45, Kant was finally appointed Professor of Logic and Metaphysics at the University of Königsberg. Kant wrote his Inaugural Dissertation in defense of this appointment. This work saw the emergence of several central themes of his mature work, including the distinction between the faculties of intellectual thought and sensible receptivity. Not to observe this distinction would mean to commit the error of subreption, and, as he says in the last chapter of the dissertation, only in avoidance of this error will metaphysics flourish.      从到这一点出发,康德日益转向哲学问题,虽然他继续在有生之年撰写科学作品。1760年代早期,康德创作了一系列重要的哲学著述。《四种演绎模式的虚假性质》是一部逻辑作品,发表于1762年。次年出版了另外两部作品:《把负数概念引入哲学的尝试》与《支持上帝存在证明的唯一可能论据》。1764年,康德撰写了《对美感与崇高感的考察》,后来与摩西·门德尔松的《自然神学与道德原则差异之研究》【通常成为获奖论文】在柏林科学院奖上竞争,得第二名。1770年45岁之时,康德终于被委任为格尼斯堡大学的逻辑学与形而上学教授。他写了“就职论文”作为职位答辩。在这一作品中出现了他成熟期著述的几个核心主题,包括理智与知觉感受能力之间区分。看不到这一区分就会犯“偷换”的错误,他在论文的最后一章认为,只有避免这一错误,形而上学才能得以兴盛。 The issue that vexed Kant was central to what twentieth century scholars termed "the philosophy of mind." The flowering of the natural sciences had led to an understanding of how data reaches the brain. Sunlight may fall upon a distant object, whereupon light is reflected from various parts of the object in a way that maps the surface features (color, texture, etc.) of the object. The light reaches the eye of a human observer, passes through the cornea, is focused by the lens upon the retina where it forms an image similar to that formed by light passing through a pinhole into a camera obscura. The retinal cells next send impulses through the optic nerve and thereafter they form a mapping in the brain of the visual features of the distant object. The interior mapping is not the exterior thing being mapped, and our belief that there is a meaningful relationship between the exterior object and the mapping in the brain depends on a chain of reasoning that is not fully grounded. But the uncertainty aroused by these considerations, the uncertainties raised by optical illusions, misperceptions, delusions, etc., are not the end of the problems.     困扰康德的问题是20世纪学者们叫做“心灵哲学”的东西的核心。自然科学的兴起让我们理解了数据如何进入大脑。阳光照射在遥远的物体上,于是光就会以此物体的表面特征(颜色、质地等)图谱样式在物体的各部分进行反射。光到达观察者的眼睛,通过视网膜,由视网膜上的水晶体聚焦而形成图像,这似于光通过小孔进入暗箱而形成的图像。接下来,视网膜细胞通过视神经传送冲动,此后在形成此遥远物体可视特征在大脑中的映像。内部映像并非被映射的外部对象,我们在外部对象和脑中映射之间存在有意义的联系的信念依靠的是并不完全可靠的推理链。但是,这些考虑引发的不可靠性,由幻视、误解、错觉等引起的不可靠性还不是问题的全部。 Kant saw the mind could not function as an empty container that simply receives data from the outside. Something had to be giving order to the incoming data. Images of external objects have to be kept in the same sequence in which they were received. This ordering occurs through the mind's intuition of time. The same considerations apply to the mind's function of constituting space for ordering mappings of visual and tactile signals arriving via the already described chains of physical causation.       康德认为心灵并非从外部单纯接受数据的空容器。必定存在赋予进入数据只需的某种东西。外部物体的图像必须与被接受的序列保持一致。这种排序是通过心灵的时间感而发生的。同样的考虑也适用于心灵为分类进入的视觉和触觉映射经过已述的自然因果链构建空间的功能。 The Silent Decade  十年沉默 At the age of 46, Kant was an established scholar and an increasingly influential philosopher. Much was expected of him. In response to a letter from his student, Markus Herz, Kant came to recognize that in the Inaugural Dissertation, he had failed to account for the relation and connection between our sensible and intellectual faculties, i.e., he needed to explain both how humans acquire data and how they process data—related but very different processes. He also credited David Hume with awakening him from "dogmatic slumber". Kant did not publish any work in philosophy for the next eleven years.      46岁的时候,康德已是一位稳健的学者和影响日增的哲学家。有许多事要发生。通过他的学生马库斯·赫兹的一封信,康德开始意识到,在“就职论文”中,他未能说清我们的感知能力与理智能力之间的关系,即他有必要解释人是如何获得数据、处理数据的—这两个过程相关但是迥然不同的过程。他赞扬大为·休谟把他从“教条主义的迷梦”中唤醒。后来的11年中康德没有发表任何哲学著述。 Kant spent his silent decade working on a solution to the problem mentioned above. Although fond of company and conversation with others, Kant isolated himself. He resisted friends' attempts to bring him out of his isolation.       他沉默10年来致力于解决上述问题。虽然喜欢他人陪伴并与他人对话,但他甘愿孤独。他避开了了朋友把他带出孤独的努力。 When Kant emerged from his silence in 1781, the result was the Critique of Pure Reason. Although now uniformly recognized as one of the greatest works in the history of philosophy, this Critique was largely ignored upon its initial publication. The book was long, over 800 pages in the original German edition, and written in what some considered a convoluted style. It received few reviews, and these granted no significance to the work. Its density made it, as Johann Gottfried Herder put it in a letter to Johann Georg Hamann, a "tough nut to crack," obscured by "…all this heavy gossamer." Its reception stood in stark contrast, to the praise Kant had received for earlier works such as his "Prize Essay" and other shorter works that precede the first Critique. These well-received and readable tracts include one on the earthquake in Lisbon which was so popular that it was sold by the page. Prior to the change in course documented in the first Critique, his books sold well, and by the time he published Observations On the Feeling of the Beautiful and the Sublime in 1764 he had become a popular author of some note. Kant was disappointed with the first Critique's reception. Recognizing the need to clarify the original treatise, Kant wrote the Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics in 1783 as a summary of its main views. He also encouraged his friend, Johann Schultz, to publish a brief commentary on the Critique of Pure Reason. 康德1781年打破沉默之时,《纯粹理性批判》面世。虽然现在人们一致认为它是哲学史上最伟大的著作之一,但初版时深遭忽视。此书很长,德国原版800多页,而且是以晦涩的写作风格撰写的。没有什么评论,没人意识到这部作品的真正重要性。正如约翰·戈特弗里德·赫德尓在致约翰·乔治·哈曼的信中所说,其复杂性使其成为“硬骨头”,被“所有的厚厚的蛛网”所隐藏。对它的接受与康德因“获奖论文”与其他之前的短论所受到的赞扬形成十分鲜明的对照。这些广受欢迎的易读之作包括十分流行以至于按页卖的“论里斯本地震”。在第一本批判经历的过程变化之前,他的书很畅销,到他1764年出版《对美感与崇高感的考察》的时候,他已成为某文摘的受欢迎作者。康德对第一本批判的遭遇很失望。认识到需要使原作明晰易懂,康德1783年以《未来形而上学导论》作为对《批判》主要思想的。他也鼓励好友约翰·舒尔兹发表对《纯粹理性批判》的短评。 Kant's reputation gradually rose through the 1780s, sparked by a series of important works: the 1784 essay, "Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?"; 1785s Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (his first work on moral philosophy); and, from 1786, Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science. But Kant's fame ultimately arrived from an unexpected source. In 1786, Karl Reinhold began to publish a series of public letters on the Kantian philosophy. In these letters, Reinhold framed Kant's philosophy as a response to the central intellectual controversy of the era: the Pantheism Dispute. Friedrich Jacobi had accused the recently deceased G. E. Lessing (a distinguished dramatist and philosophical essayist) of Spinozism. Such a charge, tantamount to atheism, was vigorously denied by Lessing's friend Moses Mendelssohn, and a bitter public dispute arose among partisans. The controversy gradually escalated into a general debate over the values of the Enlightenment and the value of reason itself. Reinhold maintained in his letters that Kant's Critique of Pure Reason could settle this dispute by defending the authority and bounds of reason. Reinhold's letters were widely read and made Kant the most famous philosopher of his era.       通过1780年代,康德的声誉由于一系列重要作品的触发而逐步上升:1784年的论文—“对什么是启蒙问题的回答”;1785年的《道德形而上学基础》(他的第一部道德哲学作品);1786年的《自然科学形而上学基础》。可是康德的声誉最终是意外得到的。1786年,卡尔·莱因霍尔德开始发表一系列论康德哲学的公开信,在这些信件中,莱因霍尔德说康德哲学是对那个时代核心思想争论—泛神论争论的回应。弗里德里希·雅克布指责最近去世的G.F.莱辛(著名剧作家、哲学评论家)“斯宾诺莎主义”,这样的指责,就等于对无神论的指责,受到了莱辛挚友摩西·门德尔松的强烈驳斥,各方展开了激烈的公开争论。这场争论逐步升级到对启蒙的意义与理性本身价值的普遍争论。莱因霍尔德在信中坚持,康德的《纯粹理性批判》通过为理性的权威和限制的辩护解决此争论。莱因霍尔德的信被广为阅读而使康德成为他那时代最著名的哲学家。 Kant's Early Work  康德的早期著述 A varie
/
本文档为【康德】,请使用软件OFFICE或WPS软件打开。作品中的文字与图均可以修改和编辑, 图片更改请在作品中右键图片并更换,文字修改请直接点击文字进行修改,也可以新增和删除文档中的内容。
[版权声明] 本站所有资料为用户分享产生,若发现您的权利被侵害,请联系客服邮件isharekefu@iask.cn,我们尽快处理。 本作品所展示的图片、画像、字体、音乐的版权可能需版权方额外授权,请谨慎使用。 网站提供的党政主题相关内容(国旗、国徽、党徽..)目的在于配合国家政策宣传,仅限个人学习分享使用,禁止用于任何广告和商用目的。

历史搜索

    清空历史搜索