April 20th Critical Thinking Debra Hills

 Introduction: What is Critical Thinking? Part One: Developing a Critical State of Mind Chapter 1 Preparing Yourself for Critical Thinking · Approaches to Teaching and Learning at University · Different Types of Knowledge · Getting to Know Yourself - Critically · Habits of Thought · How to Think · Tips for Top Scores · Checklist Chapter 2 Taking a Critical Approach · Descriptive versus Critical Writing · Steps Involved in Critical Thinking · Knowledge and Comprehension · Application and Analysis · Synthesise and Evaluation · Tips for Top Scores · Checklist Chapter 3 Argument · What an Argument is · Key Components of an Argument · What an Argument isn’t · Tips for Top Scores · Checklist Part Two: Assessing Arguments Chapter 4 The line of Reasoning · Following a Line of Reasoning · A Strong Argument · Reconstructing the Argument · Assessing the line of Reasoning · Pitfalls to be on Guard For · Tips for Top Scores · Checklist Chapter 5 Zooming in: Reading between the Lines · Jumping to Conclusions · Rooting Out Assumptions · Discriminating Definitions · Loaded Language and Loose Language · Making Accurate Claims · Research Data Scrutiny · Tips for Top Scores · Checklist Chapter 6 Zooming Out: Putting Texts into Context · Authors With Authority · Schools of Thought · The Intended Audience · Academic Sources · Zooming Out Questions · Tips for Top Scores · Checklist Part Three: Applying Critical Thinking Chapter 7 Reading Critically · Reading the Reading List · How to Read · Questioning the Text: Reading as Conversation · Dealing with Counterarguments · Notetaking · Tips for Top Scores · Checklist Chapter 8 Writing Critically · Writing as Conversation · Unpacking the Question · Planning Your Answer · Getting Started · Critical Paragraphs · Using Sources · Questioning Your First Draft · Tips for Top Scores · Checklist Chapter 9 Critical Thinking in Your Discipline · Critical Thinking in Science · Critical Thinking in Arts and Humanities · Critical Thinking in Social Sciences · Critical Thinking in Your Discipline · Tips for Top Scores · Checklist Problem solving Q and A Glossary Introduction A common complaint among university tutors is that students do not think critically enough. Essays are ‘too descriptive’, ‘have no evidence’ or ‘show no argument’. However, while tutors expect students to think critically and grade their assessments on this ability, they rarely explain what ‘a critical approach’ actually is. What is Critical Thinking? In everyday English, being critical means finding fault: The tutor criticised me for jumping to conclusions. Another common meaning of critical is ‘highly important’: Managing your time is critical if you want to do well at university. Critical also describes the work of those who review films, books and music. Film critics, for instance, don’t just say whether or not they enjoyed a film; they judge the film’s strengths and weaknesses using criteria such as the script, the acting and the direction. This third meaning is closest to what is meant by ‘critical’ in academic studies. A critical approach applies to all aspects of university study: not only reading and writing assignments but listening in lectures, giving presentations and speaking in seminars. It involves a number of skills: · precision both in understanding academic texts and in writing your own · being able to form and to follow arguments · logical reasoned thinking · knowing when to take information at face value and when to challenge · analysing and evaluating information · selecting the right knowledge for the task · understanding issues from perspectives other than your own Clearly, the ‘thinking’ is as crucial as the ‘critical’. Sound like hard work? You might be thinking ‘why should I bother?’ The Need to Think Critically The simple answer is, because your tutors expect it. Every assessment, from coursework to exams, is marked according to an agreed set of standards: the assessment criteria. Each course has its own criteria but certain requirements for a top grade appear across the board. Here are some of the more common ones: · Demonstrates an ability to think critically (covered in chapters 1 and 2) · Good depth of analysis ( covered in chapters 4 and 8) · Identifies key debates (covered in chapters 3 , 6 and 7) · Strong argument (covered in chapters 3, 4, 5 and 8) · Evidence of independent thinking (covered in chapters 2 and 7) · Extensive range of Sources, applied with insight (covered in chapter 6) · Good evaluation of source material (covered in chapters 4 and 5) All of these require critical thinking and are dealt with in this book. Now look at some of the criteria used to award lower scores: · Overly descriptive · No argument · Inappropriate/irrelevant material · Limited reasoning · Opinions expressed without evidence · Weakly structured argument These comments are all linked to a lack of critical thinking; their exact meanings will become more apparent as you read on. Whatever your subject area, or discipline, you will be expected to think critically. This book aims to get you started at taking a critical approach, explaining how to apply critical thinking to your reading and written assignments. While there’s no short cut to thinking critically, the more you apply your critical skills, the deeper you will engage with your subject until it becomes a natural way to approach your studies. Oh yes, and get those top grades!   1: Preparing to Think Critically To begin, let’s find out why critical thinking is so crucial in your studies by looking at the different types of knowledge used at university level. Then we can move on to look at how our own thinking patterns, such as jumping to conclusions or insisting we know best, can often obstruct effective thought. Approaches to Teaching and Learning at University It may come as a surprise to learn that at university, there is no-one to teach you! The role of a university tutor is: · to guide you in your studies by designing a stimulating syllabus and providing you with a reading list · to assist you with your learning through lectures and seminars and suchlike Tutors might point out misinterpretations of ideas or explain complex ideas but they will not tell you what to think. To put it plainly, they are not teachers. Another, often welcome, surprise is the lighter timetable. Many first-year students are delighted to find whole days lecture and seminar- free. Don’t sign up for the synchronised swimming team just yet, however! You will need this time to tackle your reading list and complete your written assignments. At university, the word ‘homework’ is replaced by the phrase ‘independent study’. And the key to independent study? Critical thinking, of course! Critical thinking is necessary because knowledge at undergraduate level is no longer straightforward. Gone are the days of the ‘learn and churn’ approach of reproducing facts; at university knowledge becomes more complex. Broadly speaking, subject knowledge can be classified into two types; uncontested and contested. Different Types of Knowledge Uncontested Knowledge This includes much of what you learned at school; for example, the reproduction patterns of the amoeba or the date of The Battle of Hastings. Facts, laws, principles - anything which can be checked and proven - are uncontested; taken as true unless proven otherwise. As an undergraduate, you need to become familiar with the specialist uncontested knowledge in your discipline. However, this knowledge will only form part of the picture. You will need to be just as familiar with the contested knowledge of your subject. Contested Knowledge ‘Contested’ means open to question. Theories, ideas, and perspectives can be challenged, questioned and disputed but not proven. Psychology students, for instance, ask whether or not human intelligence is genetic or due to environmental factors; Astronomists attempt to find out the exact age of the planet Earth. For questions like these, there is not one, clear answer but a number of competing perspectives which can contradict and even undermine each other. Moreover, what seems certain at a basic level is often questioned at higher levels. A once simple word like ‘freedom’, for example, can be the subject of an entire module. While uncontested knowledge can be assumed to be true and applied to problems without question, contested knowledge needs to be examined critically. The lack of a correct answer may initially be frustrating. However, when dealing with a contested issue, the aim is not to give the answer; the aim is to show, after a full consideration of all sides of the issue, what the writer believes to be the most convincing answer. With such a large amount of contested knowledge at university, it is crucial to take a critical approach. But there’s one last potential obstacle to critical thinking you need to face: yourself. Getting to Know Yourself - Critically Here’s a short thinking exercise which will help you spot any short-circuits in your own ability to think critically. Look at the statement below and decide whether you agree or disagree. How strongly do you feel about it? What are the reasons for your answer? Using Facebook extensively can diminish a person’s intellectual ability. Now, decide which of the responses below best suits your own. 1. Why argue with something as ridiculous as this? 2. It’s definitely true/ definitely false. 3. It’s true! A friend of mine spent all day on Facebook and ended up dropping out of college. 4. Who cares? 5. I don’t know. 6. I’d say it’s 50% true and 50% false. 7. I agree/disagree for a number of reasons but I’d need more information before I gave a definitive answer. Comments on responses: 1) Be careful. Dismissing everything is as closed-mind as believing everything. Critical thinking needs an open-mind. Assuming you are right without considering other perspectives shows no deep thought. 2) Is anything really so black and white? Total conviction of your own viewpoint suggests inflexible thinking with counterarguments ignored and debates simplified. 3) Personal anecdotes hold no sway in academic thinking. You’re right to justify your position with an example but only those from academic texts or studies can be used to support a viewpoint. 4) Shrugging your shoulders indicates no thinking at all. 5 and 6) Sitting on the fence may feel safe; perhaps you worry your answer is ‘wrong’ or that your opinion isn’t important. However, opting out of a debate suggests a lack of engagement and is likely to lead to average marks. 7) Yes! We have a burgeoning critical thinker in our midst. All of these responses are common. It’s normal to dismiss an argument because we don’t like it. Lots of people thrive on proving the other person wrong. But none of these stances suggests consideration of all sides of the issue. Equally, it is common to feel we don’t know enough about an issue to take a stance. However, not knowing enough is an invitation to think critically: to read different perspectives and decide which are most closely aligned to our own. Most of us fall into one of two categories: over-opinionated (like responses 1 to 3) and under-opinionated (like responses 4 to 6). We may be over-opinionated in certain circumstances and under-opinionated in others. Both create barriers to critical thinking. However, each can be rectified by a degree of self-awareness. Over-opinionated In family arguments, winners aren’t necessarily those with the best reasoning skills or most knowledge of the issue. ‘Winners’ are often the loudest shouters, the ones who won’t back down and refuse to see things from any perspective other than their own. These tactics won’t work at university. This is because the purpose of argument at university isn’t to win; it is to gain a deeper understanding of an issue. While it is human nature to judge, critical thinking is about standing back from instant judgements until you know more. It is about being open-minded enough to allow new information to change your ideas or perspective. Education can shake your belief system. But only if you let it. Under-opinionated Perhaps you read a text and agree with the writer. Then you read one which contradicts the first. This is also convincing. You’re worried that the more you read, the less you know what to think. Taking the middle way is the safest option. Not necessarily. If Smith argues that British school children should be given machine guns as protection from bullies and Davis strongly disagrees, would you decide that half the children in the UK should be armed as a compromise? Sometimes an extreme view is the most defensible. Similarly, concluding an essay with ‘there are both advantages and disadvantages’ is circular – we all know that; it’s why you were set the question! The reader wants to know, now that you have read and considered all arguments, what is the best stance to take and why? Chapter 3, on argument, will help you to build an informed stance. Other barriers to critical thinking 1. Getting upset or annoyed if someone disagrees with you. 2. Unchallenged thinking. You and all your friends think the same so you must be right. 3. A competitive nature: determination to win every argument - whatever it takes! 4. Refusing to listen to arguments you don’t like. 5. Making instant judgements and sticking to them. This misses the point of education - to explore issues and fully consider implications. These barriers tend to be fairly entrenched and we can’t expect to overcome them overnight. But being self- aware and spotting our own tendencies towards certain thought patterns is a real start. Do you recognise yourself in any of the above? Be on guard for your own tendencies, ready to combat them if you notice yourself reacting in your usual way. There’s one final barrier to critical thinking which needs to be examined; one which is so commonplace, it deserves a section of its own: habits of thought. Habits of Thought Have you ever been surprised by a twist at the end of a film? The hero’s best friend was the murderous blackmailer? The helpful caretaker was actually a ghost? If a film is convincing, we tend to miss the clues that all is not as it seems and watch with our usual habits of thought; best friends can be trusted, caretakers are not ghosts. With a habit of thought, the brain runs on autopilot making instant unconscious judgements. Our day to day lives rely on them: we get up, shower and have breakfast without agonising over whether someone has planted a bomb in the bathroom or poisoned our cornflakes. With a habit of thought, the brain stops trying to assess, categorise or understand, economising effort and saving thought processes for when needed. Academic study needs these thought processes! Habits of thought have to be challenged if we want to think critically. Let’s take an example. A report of a clinical trial shows that children taking fish-oil supplements performed better in their GCSE exams than those who did not. Goodness, what a result! You’re not surprised; you already knew that fish-oil was good for the brain. This trial proves it. Stop! You are acting on habits of thought! Look a little closer. The study was funded by Cod-Eye, a major fish-oil manufacturer. Oh dear, there may be some vested interests. You look closer still. How much better were the GCSE results? On average, pupils gained one grade higher in one subject. So not much. And the experiment has not been repeated so results cannot be verified. Not such a conclusive result, after all. We tend to believe evidence for what we think we already know; it’s the simplest option. Academia, however, expects complexity and tutors are quick to spot habits of thinking. We need to check these thoughts through careful, critical reasoning. So now we are on guard for barriers to critical thinking; it’s time to find out how we should think. How to Think No-one can tell you how to think! At university, you have to show you can think for yourself. However, Socrates, writing two and a half thousand years ago, is a good place to start: “True knowledge exists in knowing that you know nothing”. Accepting that you do not have all the answers can be extremely liberating and leads to a genuinely open mind. Question what you do know, especially if it seems neat and tidy; Stephen Fry on “QI” delights in learning that the earth has seven moons or that Queen Victoria smoked cannabis. Having the flexibility to modify your views as you learn more will give you a stronger foundation for further learning and understanding. This is what academic thought endeavours to do. If you still want an answer in how to think, then read on. Chapter 2 examines how different assignments require you to think in different ways. Tips for Top Scores · Think about a key debate in your subject. Where do you stand? Why? What other perspectives can you think of on this issue? Which one do you most disagree with? Try to imagine this is the one you most agree with. Understanding alternative viewpoints will make your thinking stronger. · Look at an assignment or seminar title and decide your basic stance before opening a book. Notice how the reading affects your stance – either strengthening or weakening it. After reading each text or study, note down any changes in your perspective. If there are none, be wary – is there any reason your viewpoint is so entrenched? Dos Don’ts Assume your thinking is imprecise, inaccurate and illogical. Subjecting yourself to scrutiny should keep you sharp. Assume that ‘criticise’ is negative; it’s about pointing out strengths as much as weaknesses. Know your weaknesses and work on them, whether it is a tendency to jump to conclusions or to sit on the fence. Waste time questioning uncontested knowledge ‘is 70% of the earth’s surface really covered by oceans’? Take a stance of some sort. Even if you only agree 51% , you’ve shown you have weighed up the evidence and used it to come to a conclusion. Get upset or annoyed if an opinion is different from yours. Work on distancing yourself from these emotions. 2: Taking a Critical Approach Your mind is open; you are on guard for habits of thought. You’re aware of the key debates in your subject and know that much of what you read is likely to be contradicted and challenged, especially in disciplines dealing with human behaviour or where interpretation plays a key role. Time to find out what’s involved in a critical approach. Let’s go back to the most common complaint by tutors about student writing: it is too descriptive. Descriptive Writing and Critical Writing Look at the box below and notice the differences between descriptive writing and critical writing. Descriptive writing Critical Writing · states what a theory or idea is · evaluates this theory or idea by examining its argument · describes a process; shows how something works · shows the strengths and weaknesses of this process or suggests a better alternative · lists ideas, details and information · relates these ideas to the question under study; evaluates the importance of each and shows links, parallels and contrasts in the information. · states what other writers have said. · makes a convincing argument in answer to a specific question Description has its place in academic writing but it is only one step in a critical approach. Remember that tutors expect a critical approach when they ask particular questions or set particular assignments. So, how do you move from descriptive writing to critical and gain those top grades? Ironically, to give effective answers, you need to know how to ask the right questions. This means moving beyond the what, where and who (descriptive questions) to the why, what if and beyond (critical questi