英语语言学

nullTheoretical LinguisticsTheoretical LinguisticsZou ZhiyongChapter 1 SyntaxChapter 1 Syntax1.Phrase Structure Rules 1) Deep and surface structures a) Deep structure— Deep structure is the underlying structure of a linguistic utterance. Deep structure is generated by phrase structural rules. b) Surface structure— Surface structure is the directly observable actual form of sentences as they are used in communication. Surface structure is generated by transformational rules (NEGATIVE) someone (PAST TENSE) deliver the newspaper today (PASSIVE) (deep structure) the newspaper was not delivered today. (surface structure) c) Node— The end of any branch is called a node. d) Constituent— A group of words that functions together as a unit is called a constituent. 2) Phrase structural rules a) S→NP+VP b) NP→Det+N c) VP→Vb+NP d) Vb→Aux+V e) Det→the, a, this, that,… f) N→table, girl, boy, letter,… g) Aux→will, can, might, would, should,… h) V→post, repair, buy, teach, sit,… S NP VP Det N Vb NP Aux V Det N the boy can teach the girl 2.Types of Syntactic Relations 1) Dominance— Node A dominates node B if and only if A is higher up in the tree than B and if you can trace a line from A to B going only downwards. M N O D E F H I J M dominates all the other nodes (N, O, D, E, F, H, I, J). N dominates D, E and F, and O dominates H, I, J. O does not dominate F. 2) C-command— Node A c-commands node B if every branching node dominating A also dominates B and neither A nor B dominate the other. A node c-commands its sisters and all the daughters ( and granddaughters and great-granddaughters, etc.) of its sisters. O A B C D E A c-commands B, D, E; B c-commands A, C. 3) Government— A governs B if and only if A is a governor ( i.e. the heads N, V, A, P, etc.) and A c-commands B. VP V NP Det N speak the language “speak” governs “the language” . VP V PP P NP Det N speak about the language “about” governs “the language”; “speak” governs “about the language” 4) Binding and binding theory a) Binding— A binds B if and only if A c-commands B and A and B are co- indexed. Anni hurt herselfi. S NPi VP N V NPi Ann hurt herself b) Binding principles Principle A: An anaphor must be bound in its binding domain. Principle B: A pronoun must be free in its binding domain. Principle C: An R-expression must be free. Binding domain refers to the clause containing the NP (anaphor, pronoun, or R- expression) Johni likes himselfi. Johni likes himj. Johni likes the manj 3. X-bar Theory I bought the big book of poems with the blue cover. He bought the small one. S NP VP N V NP D AP N PP PP I bought the big book of poems with the blue cover S NP VP N V NP D A N He bought the small one S NP VP N V NP D N′1 AP N′2 N′3 PP N PP I bought the big book of poems with the blue cover the student of physics NP Det N′ the N PP student of physics 1) X-bar schema XP YP X′ X ZP head a) XP→(YP)X′ b) X′→X(ZP) book of poems NP Det N′ N PP book of poems eat beans VP V′ V NP eat beans Sometimes between X′and XP, other bar levels can be inserted for adjuncts. book of poems with a red cover NP Det N′ N′ PP N PP with a red cover book of poems eat beans with a fork VP V′ V′ PP with a fork V NP eat beans XP YP X′ X′ WP X ZP head 2) Complement, adjunct and specifier a) Complement— Sister to X, daughter of X′. b) Adjunct— Sister to X′, daughter of X′. c) Specifier— Sister to X′, daughter of XP. XP specifier → YP X′ X′ WP ← adjunct X ZP ← complement head d) Specifier rule: XP → (YP) X′ e) Adjunct rule : X′ → X′ (WP) or (WP) X′ f) Complement rule: X′ → X (ZP) the book of poems with a red cover NP specifier Det N′ the N′ PP adjunct with a red cover N PP complement book of poems the book of poems with a red cover *the book with a red cover of poems the book of poems with a red cover from Blackwell by Robert Burns the book of poems from Blackwell with a red cover by Robert Burns the boring linguistics book *the linguistics boring book the big red boring linguistics book the big boring red linguistics book loved the policeman with all my heart *loved with all my heart the policeman 3)Extending X-bar schema to functional categories a) Tense Phrase (TP) TP NP T′ T VP (a) TP→NP T′ (b) T′→T VP b) Complimentizer Phrase (CP) CP C′ C TP (a) CP→ C′ (b) C′→C TP The students like the baseball. CP C′ C TP NP T′ Det N′T VP The N V′ students V NP like Det N ′ the N baseball 4. Constraining X-bar Theory: Theta Roles and the Lexicon 1) Predication analysis— Predication analysis refers to the kind of analysis which involves the breaking down of predication into their constituents, i.e. arguments and predicates. one-place predication: He is snoring. two-place predication: Kids like apples. three-place predication: Mary gave John a book. no-place predication: It is late. It is raining. *What is raining? It. 2) Theta roles and thematic relations a) Agent—The doer of an action (under some definition must be capable of volition) John cooked the fish. b) Expereincer—The argument that perceives or experiences an event or state. Mary saw the smoke. Bill likes cookies. Nancy loves Terry. c) Theme— The element undergoing the action or change of state. The arrow hit Michal. d) Goal— The end point of a movement. Millie went to Chicago. e) Recipient— Entity receiving or possessing some entity. John gave Mary a book. f) Source— The starting point of a movement. The plane came back from London. g) Location— The place an action or state occurs. The band played in a marquee. h) Instrument— A tool with which an action is performed. She cooked the meal with an electric cooker. I) Benefactive— The entity for whose benefit the action is performed. He bought these flowers for Jane 3) Theta grid Smith put the book in the bathroom. (three arguments) Smith read the book in the bathroom. (two arguments) *Smith put the book. Smith read the book. Not all nominals in a sentence are arguments of a verb. An argument must be a theta role or vice versa. put v: [+___ATL] read v: [+___AT] John put the book on the shelf. John read the book. like v: [+___ET] The students like the baseball. *The baseballs like the student. 4) The Theta criterion a) Each argument is assigned one and only one theta role. b) Each theta role is assigned to one and only one argument. love v: [+___ET] *The girl loves. The girl loves the boy. Kiss v:[+___AT] *The girl kissed her doll her friend. The girl kissed her doll. 5) The Projection Principle—Lexical information (like theta roles) is syntactically represented at all levels. sell V: [+___NP NP] [+___A T] *The book sold the author. the author sold the book. 6) Expletive insertion and extended projection principle(EPP) a) Expletive insertion— Insert an expletive pronoun into the specifier of TP. It snowed. It rained. b) Extended projection principle(EPP)— All clauses must have subjects. Lexical information is syntactically represented. It rained. The model The Lexicon The Computational Component (theta roles) X-bar rules Theta criterion (constraint) Expletive insertion EPP (constriant) Output 5. Transformation 1) Head-to-Head movement The boy kicked the ball. CP C′ C TP NP T′ The boy T VP -ed V′ V NP kick the ball Have you squeezed the toilet paper? CP C′ C TP NP T′ you T VP have V′ V NP squeezed the toilet paper Do you eat apples? CP C′ C TP NP T′ you T VP V′ V NP do eat apples 2) NP movement The puppy was kissed. CP C′ C TP NP T′ T VP was V′ V NP kissed The puppy 3) Wh-movement Whom is Matt kissing? CP C′ C TP NP T′ Matt T VP is V′ V NP kissing Whom 4) Raising, control and empty categories a) PRO—A null (silent) NP found in caseless positions (the specifier) of non- finite TP). Johni seemed [ti to enjoy the play] Johni expected [PROi to enjoy the play] CP CP C′ C′ C TP C TP NP T′ NP T′ T VP JohniT VP -ed V′ -ed V′ V CP V CP seem C′ expect C′ C TP C TP NP T′ NP T′ John T VP PROi T VP to V′ to V′ V NP V NP enjoy the play enjoy the play b) Subject-to-subject raising—A kind of NP movement where the subject of an embedded non-finite clause moves to the specifier of TP of the main clause to get nominative case. Jeani is likely [ti to leave]. Jeani is likely [ti to leave]. TP NP T′ T AP is A′ A CP likely C′ C TP NP T′ Jean T VP to leave c) Subject control—A sentence where there is a PRO in the embedded non-finite clause that is controlled by the subject argument of the main clause. Jeani is reluctant [PROi to leave]. Jeani is reluctant [PROi to leave]. TP NP T′ Jeani T AP is A′ A CP reluctant C′ C TP NP T′ PROi T VP to leave d) Subject-to-object raising—A kind of NP movement where the subject of an embedded non-finite clause moves to the complement of the verb in the main clause to get accusative case. I want Billi [ti to leave]. I want Billi [ti to leave] TP NP T′ I T VP V′ V NP CP want C′ C TP NP T′ Bill T VP to leave e) Object control — A sentence where there is a PRO in the embedded non-finite clause that is controlled by the object argument of the main clause. I persuade Billi [PROi to leave]. I persuade Billi [PROi to leave]. TP NP T′ I T VP V′ V NP CP persuade Billi C′ C TP NP T′ PROi T VP to leave f) Distinguishing raising from control Jean is likely to leave. Jean is reluctant to leave. I want Bill to leave. I persuade Bill to leave. Chapter 2 SemanticsChapter 2 Semantics1. Theories of Meaning 1)Referential Theory— The meaning of an expression is what it refers to, or denotes, or stands for. word——thing 2)Ideational or Mentalistic Theory— The meaning of an expression is the idea or concept, associated with it in the mind of anyone who knows and understands the expression. co