心理学名词解释

心理学名词解释 12—4 A AB Design A single subject research design that contains one baseline (A) and one treatment (B). ABAB Design A single subject research design that contains a baseline (A1), treatment (B1), a second baseline (B2) and a second treatment phase (B2) Alpha (lowercase) The abbreviation for probability of error in statistical results. See Type I Error. (a) Alternative Hypothesis The hypothesis that states there is a difference between two or more sets of data. Absolute Zero Characteristic of a scale of measurement that contains a point where the scale has no value. Accommodation The creation of new cognitive schemas when objects, experiences, or other information does not fit with existing schemas. Action Potential The firing on a neuron. Occurs when the charge inside the neuron becomes more positive than the charge outside. Acetycholine A neurotransmitter associated with voluntary movement, sleep and wakefulness. Aggressive An interpersonal style where only the immediate needs of the self are considered rather than the needs of others. (As opposed to passive or assertive) Agoraphobia An anxiety disorder characterized by an intense fear of leaving one's home. All or None Law Either a neuron completely fires or it does not fire at all. Alpha (lowercase) The abbreviation for probability of error in statistical results. See Type I Error. (a) Alternative Hypothesis The hypothesis that states there is a difference between two or more sets of data. Altruism Behavior that is unselfish and may even be detrimental but which benefits others. Amnesia Loss of memory. Usually only a partial loss such as for a period of time or biographical information. Amygdala A part of the brain's limbic system that attaches emotional significance to information and mediates both defensive and aggressive behavior. Anal Expulsive Personality Stemming from the Anal stage, a child who becomes fixated due to over control transfers his or her unresolved anal (or control) issues into characteristics such as cruelty, pushiness, messiness, or disorganization. Anal Retentive Personality Stemming from the Anal stage, a child who becomes fixated due to under control transfers his or her unresolved anal (or control) issues into characteristics such as compulsivity, stinginess, cleanliness, organization, and obstinance. Anal Stage Freud's second stage of psychosexual development where the primary sexual focus is on the elimination or holding onto feces. The stage is often thought of as representing a child's ability to control his or her own world. Analysis See Psychoanalysis. Analysis of Variance An inferential statistical procedure used to test whether or not the means of two or more sets of data are equal to each other. ANOVA Analysis of Variance. Anxiety The physiological and psychological reaction to an expected danger, whether real or imagined. Aphasia The impairment of the ability to communicate either through oral or written discourse as a result of brain damage. Approach-Approach Conflict The conflict presented when two opposite but equally appealing choices are available but can not both be obtained. Approach-Avoidance Conflict The conflict presented when the best positive choice will result in a negative outcome as well as positive. Arousal Theory The theory stating that we are motivated by our innate desire to maintain an optimal level of arousal. Assertive Style of interpersonal interaction where both the needs of the self and others are considered. (As opposed to passive or aggressive) Assimilation Incorporating objects, experiences, or information into existing schemas. Associations The phenomenon in learning that states we are better able to remember information if it is paired with something we are familiar with or otherwise stands out. Attachment The strong bond a child forms with his or her primary caregiver. Attribution An idea or belief about the etiology of a certain behavior. Attribution Theory The theory that argues people look for explanation of behavior, associating either dispositional (internal) attributes or situational (external) attributes. Authoritarian [parents] Parenting style focused on excessive rules, rigid belief systems, and the expectation of unquestioned obedience. Authoritative [parents] Parenting style focused on setting reasonable rules and expectations while encouraging communication and independence. Autonomic Nervous System Part of the peripheral nervous system that regulates the involuntary actions of the body (e.g., breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, pupil dilation). Also regulates the Fight or Flight Phenomenon. Availability Heuristic A rule of thumb stating that information more readily available in our memory is more important than information not as easily accessible. Aversion Therapy A type of behavioral treatment where an aversive stimuli is paired with a negative behavior in hopes that the behavior will change in the future to avoid the aversive stimuli. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict The conflict where both possible choices have an equal negative outcome. Axon The tail-like part of the neuron through which information exits the cell. B Behavior Modification The application of behavioral theory to change a specific behavior. Behavior Therapy The application of behavioral theory (e.g. conditioning, reinforcement) in the treatment of mental illness. Behaviorism The school of psychology founded on the premise that behavior is measurable and can be changed through the application of various behavioral principles. Bell-Shaped Curve Also referred to as a normal distribution or normal curve, a bell-shaped curve is a perfect mesokurtic curve where the mean, median, and mode are equal. Beta (uppercase) Abbreviation for Power in statistical results. See Type II Error. (b) Binocular Cues Visual cues (convergence and retinal disparity) that require both eyes to perceive distance (as opposed to monocular cues) Bisexuality Being attracted to or aroused by members of both genders. See Sexual Orientation. Blind Study As a way to avoid the placebo effect in research, this type of study is designed without the subject's knowledge of the anticipated results and sometimes even the nature of the study. The subjects are said to be 'blind' to the expected results. Broca’s Aphasia An aphasia associated with damage to the Broca's area of the brain, demonstrated by the impairment in producing understandable speech. Burnout Changes in thoughts, emotions, and behavior as a result of extended job stress and unrewarded repetition of duties. Burnout is seen as extreme dissatisfaction, pessimism, lowered job satisfaction, and a desire to quit. C Canonical Correlation A correlational technique used when there are two or more X and two or more Y. (Example: The correlation between (age and sex) and (income and life satisfaction) Castration Anxiety According to Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development, the fear a boy in the phallic stage experiences due to a fear that his father will render him powerless if his father finds out about his attraction toward his mother. Catharsis The emotional release associated with the expression of unconscious conflicts. CEEB Score A standard score that sets the mean to five-hundred and standard deviation to one-hundred. Used on the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) Cell Body The main part of a neuron where the information is processed. Central Nervous System The brain and the spinal cord. Central Tendency A statistical measurement attempting to depict the average score in a distribution (see mean, median, and/or mode) Centration A young child's tendency to focus only on his or her own perspective of a specific object and a failure to understand that others may see things differently. Cerebellum Part of the brain associated with balance, smooth movement, and posture. Cerebral Hemispheres The two halves of the brain (right and left) Chemical Imbalance A generic term for the idea that chemical in the brain are either too scarce or too abundant resulting in or contributing to a mental disorder such as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. Others believe that the disorder precedes the imbalance, suggesting that a change in mood, for example, changes our chemicals rather than the chemical changing our mood. Chunk A unit of information used in memory Chunking Combining smaller units of measurement or chunks into larger chunks. (e.g., a seven chunk phone number such as 5-5-5-1-2-1-2 becomes a five chunk number such as 5-5-5-12-12) Classical Conditioning The behavioral technique of pairing a naturally occurring stimulus and response chain with a different stimulus in order to produce a response which is not naturally occurring. Client Centered Therapy A humanistic therapy based on Carl Roger's beliefs that an individual has an unlimited capacity for psychological growth and will continue to grow unless barriers are placed in the way. Coefficient of Determination The statistic or number determined by squaring the correlation coefficient. Represents the amount of variance accounted for by that correlation. Coercive Power Power derived through the ability to punish. Cognition The process of receiving, processing, storing, and using information. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Treatment involving the combination of behaviorism (based on the theories of learning) and cognitive therapy (based on the theory that our cognitions or thoughts control a large portion of our behaviors). Cognitive Dissonance he realization of contradictions in one's own attitudes and behaviors. Cognitive Psychology The sub-field of psychology associated with information processing and the role it plays in emotion, behavior, and physiology. Cognitive Therapy The treatment approach based on the theory that our cognitions or thoughts control a large part of our behaviors and emotions. Therefore, changing the way we think can result in positive changes in the way we act and feel. Cohort Effects The effects of being born and raised in a particular time or situation where all other members of your group has similar experiences that make your group unique from other groups Collective Unconscious According to Jung, the content of the unconscious mind that is passed down from generation to generation in all humans. Compulsion The physical act resulting from an obsession. Typically a compulsive act is done in an attempt to alleviate the discomfort created by an obsession. Concrete Operational Stage According to Piaget, the stage of cognitive development where a child between the ages of 7 and 12 begins thinking more globally and outside of the self but is still deficient in abstract thought. Concurrent Validity A measurements ability to correlate or vary directly with an accepted measure of the same construct Conditioned Response The response in a stimulus-response chain that is not naturally occurring, but rather has been learned through its pairing with a naturally occurring chain. Conditioned Stimulus The stimulus in a stimulus-response chain that is not naturally occurring, but rather has been learned through its pairing with a naturally occurring chain. Conditioning The process of learning new behaviors or responses as a result of their consequences. Confidence Interval The level of certainty that the true score falls within a specific range. The smaller the range the less the certainty. Conformity Changing your attitudes, beliefs, thoughts, or behaviors in order to be more consistent with others. Confound Any variable that is not part of a research study but still has an effect on the research results Conscience According to Freud, the restriction demanded by the superego. Consciousness Awareness of yourself and the world around you. Conservation The understanding, typically achieved in later childhood, that matter remains the same even when the shape changes ( i.e., a pound of clay is still a pound of clay whether it is rolled in a ball or pounded flat). Consolidation The physiological changes in the brain associated with memory storage. Consolidation Failure The failure to store information in memory. Constant Any variable that remains the same throughout a study. Construct Any variable that can not be directly observed but rather is measured through indirect methods. (Examples: intelligence, motivation) Construct Validity The general validity of a measuring device. Construct validity answers the question of whether or not the measuring device actually measures the construct under question. Content Validity A measurement device’s ability to be generalized to the entire content of what is being measured. Context Dependent Memory The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place. Continuous Reinforcement The application of reinforcement every time a specific behavior occurs. Control Group The group of subjects in an experiment that does not receive the independent variable. Convergence The binocular cue to distance referring to the fact that the closer an object, the more inward our eyes need to turn in order to focus Convergent Thinking Logical and conventional thought leading to a single answer. Conversion Disorder A somatoform disorder where the individual experiences a loss of sensation or function due to a psychological belief (e.g., paralysis, blindness, deafness). Correlated Sample Sample data that is related to each other. Correlation The degree to which two or more variables a related to each other. A correlation refers to the direction that the variables move and does not necessarily represent cause and effect. (Example: height and weight are correlated. As one increases, the other tends to increase as well) Correlation Coefficient The statistic or number representing the degree to which two or more variables are related. Often abbreviated 'r.' Counter conditioning The use of conditioning to eliminate a previously conditioned response. The conditioned stimulus (CS) is repaired with a different unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to eventually elicit a new conditioned response (CR) Critical Period A time frame deemed highly important in developing in a healthy manner; can be physically, emotionally, behaviorally, or cognitively. Critical Value The value of a statistic required in order to consider the results significant. Cross Sectional Study A research study that examines the effects of development (maturation) by examining different subjects at various ages Cross Sequential Study A research study that examines the effects of development (maturation) by combining longitudinal and cross sectional studies Crowding The psychological and psychological response to the belief that there are too many people in a specified area. Crystallized Intelligence The part of intelligence which involves the acquisition, as opposed to the use, of information D Decay Theory which states that memory fades and/or disappears over time if it is not used or accessed. Declarative Memory The part of long-term memory where factual information is stored, such as mathematical formulas, vocabulary, and life events. Deductive Reasoning Decision making process in which ideas are processed from the general to the specific. Defenses (Defense Mechanisms) Psychological forces which prevent undesirable or inappropriate impulses from entering consciousness (e.g., forgetting responsibilities that we really didn't want to do, projecting anger onto a spouse as opposed to your boss). Also called Defense Mechanisms, Defense System, or Ego Defenses. Degrees of Freedom The numbers of individual scores that can vary without changing the sample mean. Statistically written as 'N-1' where N represents the number of subjects. Delusion False belief system (e.g., believing you are Napoleon, have magical powers, or the false belief that others are 'out to get you.'). Dendrites Extensions of the cell body of a neuron responsible for receiving incoming neurotransmitters. Dependent Variable The variable in an experiment that is measured; the outcome of an experiment. Descriptive Statistics The branch of statistics that focuses on describing in numerical format what is happening now within a population. Descriptive statistics require that all subjects in the population (the entire class, all males in a school, all professors) be tested. Developmental Psychology The area of psychology focused on how children grow psychologically to become who they are as adults. Deviation IQ Score A standard score used for reporting IQ scores where the mean is set to 100 and standard deviation to 15 Difference Threshold The smallest change in perception which is noticeable at least 50% of the time. Discrimination In behavioral theory, the learned ability to differentiate between two similar objects or situations. Disorientation Inability to recognize or be aware of who we are (person), what we are doing (situation), the time and date (time), or where we are in relation to our environment (place). To be considered a problem, it must be consistent, result in difficulty functioning, and not due to forgetting or being lost. Displacement The pushing out of older information in short term memory to make room for new information. Dispositional Attribute An attribute explained or interpreted as being caused by internal influences. Dissociation A separation from the self, with the most severe resulting in Dissociative Identity Disorder. Most of us experience this in very mild forms such as when we are driving long distance and lose time or find ourselves day dreaming longer than we thought. Distinctiveness The phenomenon in memory that states we are better able to remember information if it is distinctive or different from other information. Divergent Thinking The ability to use previously gained information to debate or discuss issues which have no agreed upon definitive resolution. Dopamine A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system. Dopamine Hypothesis The theory that schizophrenia is caused by an excess amount of dopamine in the brain. Research has found that medication to reduce dopamine can reduce the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Double Blind Study Research method in which both the subjects and the experimenter are unaware or 'blind' to the anticipated results. Drive An internal motivation to fulfill a need or reduce the negative aspects of an unpleasant situation. Drug Therapy The use of medication to treat a mental illness. E Ego In Psychoanalytical theory, the part of the personality which maintains a balance between our impulses (id) and our conscience (superego). Egocentric The thinking in the preoperational stage of cognitive development where children believe everyone sees the world fro the same perspective as he or she does. Ego Defense Mechanisms See Defenses Ego Ideal In psychoanalytic thought, this is the ideal or desired behavior of the ego according to the superego. Ellis, Albert A cognitive Psychologist who developed the concept of Rational-Emotive Therapy. Emotion Feelings about a situation, person, or objects that involves changes in physiological arousal and cognitions. Emotional Intelligence (EQ) The awareness of and ability to manage one's emotions in a healthy and productive manner. Encoding The transformation of information to be stored in memory. Endorphins A neurotransmitter involved in pain relief, and feelings of pleasure and contentedness.