Antoine Lavoisier
Line engraving by Louis Jean Desire Delaistre, after a
design by Julien Leopold Boilly
Born 26 August 1743
Paris, France
Died 8 May 1794 (aged 50)
Paris, France
Influences Guillaume-François Rouelle
Portrait of Antoine-Laurent
Lavoisier and his wife by
Jacques-Louis David, ca. 1788
Antoine Lavoisier
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (also Antoine Lavoisier after the French Revolution;
(26 August 1743 – 8 May 1794); (French pronunciation: [ɑ̃twan lɔʁɑ̃ də lavwazje]), the
"father of modern chemistry",[1] was a French nobleman prominent in the histories of
chemistry and biology. He stated the first version of the law of conservation of mass,[2]
recognized and named oxygen (1778) and hydrogen (1783), abolished the phlogiston
theory, helped construct the metric system, wrote the first extensive list of elements,
and helped to reform chemical nomenclature. He discovered that, although matter
may change its form or shape, its mass always remains the same.
He was an investor and administrator of the "Ferme Générale" a private tax collection
company; chairman of the board of the Discount Bank (later the Banque de France);
and a powerful member of a number of other aristocratic administrative councils. All of
these political and economic activities enabled him to fund his scientific research. At
the height of the French Revolution he was accused by Jean-Paul Marat of selling
watered-down tobacco, and of other crimes, and was guillotined.[3][4]
Contents
1 Early life
2 Contributions to chemistry
2.1 Research on gases, water, and combustion
2.2 Pioneer of stoichiometry
2.3 Analytical chemistry and chemical nomenclature
2.4 Legacy
3 Contributions to biology
4 Law and politics
5 Final days, execution, and aftermath
6 Selected writings
6.1 In translation
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
9.1 About his work
9.2 His writings
Early life
Born to a wealthy family in Paris, Antoine Laurent Lavoisier inherited a large fortune at the age of five
with the passing of his mother.[5] He attended the Collège Mazarin in 1754 to 1761, studying
chemistry, botany, astronomy, and mathematics. His education was filled with the ideals of the French
Enlightenment of the time, and he felt fascination for Maquois's dictionary. He attended lectures in
the natural sciences. Lavoisier's devotion and passion for chemistry was largely influenced by Étienne
Condillac, a prominent French scholar of the 18th century. His first chemical publication appeared in
1764. In collaboration with Jean-Étienne Guettard, Lavoisier worked on a geological survey of Alsace-
Lorraine in June 1767. At the age of 25, he was elected a member of the French Academy of Sciences,
France's most elite scientific society, for an essay on street lighting, and in recognition for his earlier
research. In 1769, he worked on the first geological map of France.
In 1771, at the age of 28, Lavoisier married the 13-year-old Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, the daughter
of a co-owner of the Ferme. Over time, she proved to be a scientific colleague to her husband. She
translated documents from English for him, including Richard Kirwan's Essay on Phlogiston and Joseph
Priestley's research. She created many sketches and carved engravings of the laboratory instruments
used by Lavoisier and his colleagues. She edited and published Lavoisier’s memoirs (whether any
English translations of those memoirs have survived is unknown as of today) and hosted parties at
which eminent scientists discussed ideas and problems related to chemistry.[6]
Contributions to chemistry
Research on gases, water, and combustion
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Antoine Lavoisier's famous
phlogiston experiment.
Engraving by Mme Lavoisier in
the 1780s taken from Traité
élémentaire de chimie
(Elementary treatise on
chemistry).
The work of Lavoisier
was translated in Japan
in the 1840s, through
the process of Rangaku.
Page from Udagawa
Yōan's 1840 Seimi
Kaisō.
Laboratory equipment used by
Lavoisier circa 1780s
Lavoisier demonstrated the role of oxygen in the rusting of metal, as well as oxygen's role in animal
and plant respiration. Working with Pierre-Simon Laplace, Lavoisier conducted experiments that
showed that respiration was essentially a slow combustion of organic material using inhaled oxygen.
Lavoisier's explanation of combustion disproved the phlogiston theory, which postulated that
materials released a substance called phlogiston when they burned.
Lavoisier discovered that Henry Cavendish's "inflammable air", which Lavoisier had termed hydrogen
(Greek for "water-former"), combined with oxygen to produce a dew which, as Joseph Priestley had
reported, appeared to be water. Lavoisier's work was partly based on the research of Priestley.
However, he tried to take credit for Priestley's discoveries. This tendency to use the results of others
without acknowledgment, then draw conclusions of his own, is said to be characteristic of Lavoisier.
[citation needed] In "Sur la combustion en général" ("On Combustion in general," 1777) and
"Considérations Générales sur la Nature des Acides" ("General Considerations on the Nature of Acids,"
1778), he demonstrated that the "air" responsible for combustion was also the source of acidity. In
1779, he named this part of the air "oxygen" (Greek for "becoming sharp" because he claimed that the
sharp taste of acids came from oxygen), and the other "azote" (Greek for "no life"). In "Réflexions sur
le Phlogistique" ("Reflections on Phlogiston," 1783), Lavoisier showed the phlogiston theory to be
inconsistent.
Pioneer of stoichiometry
Lavoisier's researches included some of the first truly quantitative chemical
experiments. He carefully weighed the reactants and products in a chemical
reaction, which was a crucial step in the advancement of chemistry. He
showed that, although matter can change its state in a chemical reaction,
the total mass of matter is the same at the end as at the beginning of every
chemical change. Thus, for instance, if water is heated to steam, if salt is
dissolved in water or if a piece of wood is burned to ashes, the total mass
remains unchanged. His experiments supported the law of conservation of
mass, which Lavoisier was the first to state,[2] although Mikhail Lomonosov
(1711–1765) had previously expressed similar ideas in 1748 and proved
them in experiments. Others who anticipated the work of Lavoisier include
Joseph Black (1728–1799), Henry Cavendish (1731–1810), and Jean Rey
(1583–1645).
Analytical chemistry and chemical nomenclature
Lavoisier investigated the composition of water and air, which at the time were considered elements. He
determined that the components of water were oxygen and hydrogen, and that air was a mixture of gases, primarily nitrogen and
oxygen. With the French chemists Claude-Louis Berthollet, Antoine Fourcroy and Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier devised a systematic
chemical nomenclature. He described it in Méthode de nomenclature chimique (Method of Chemical Nomenclature, 1787). This system
facilitated communication of discoveries between chemists of different backgrounds and is still largely in use today, including names
such as sulfuric acid, sulfates, and sulfites.
Lavoisier's Traité Élémentaire de Chimie (Elementary Treatise on Chemistry, 1789, translated into English by Scotsman Robert Kerr) is
considered to be the first modern chemistry textbook. It presented a unified view of new theories of chemistry, contained a clear
statement of the law of conservation of mass, and denied the existence of phlogiston. This text clarified the concept of an element as a
substance that could not be broken down by any known method of chemical analysis, and presented Lavoisier's theory of the
formation of chemical compounds from elements.
While many leading chemists of the time refused to accept Lavoisier's new ideas, demand for Traité Élémentaire as a textbook in
Edinburgh was sufficient to merit translation into English within about a year of its French publication.[7] In any event, the Traité
Élémentaire was sufficiently sound to convince the next generation.
Antoine Lavoisier - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier
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Combustion generated by
focusing sunlight over
flammable materials using
lenses, an experiment
conducted by Lavoisier in the
1770s
Detail of picture of a
combustion experimentConstant
pressure
calorimeter ,
engraving
made by
madame
Lavoisier for
thermochemistry
experiments
Lavoisier conducting an experiment
on respiration in the 1770s
Legacy
Lavoisier's fundamental contributions to chemistry were a result of a conscious effort to fit all
experiments into the framework of a single theory. He established the consistent use of the chemical
balance, used oxygen to overthrow the phlogiston theory, and developed a new system of chemical
nomenclature which held that oxygen was an essential constituent of all acids (which later turned out
to be erroneous). Lavoisier also did early research in physical chemistry and thermodynamics in joint
experiments with Laplace. They used a calorimeter to estimate the heat evolved per unit of carbon
dioxide produced, eventually finding the same ratio for a flame and animals, indicating that animals
produced energy by a type of combustion reaction.
Lavoisier also contributed to early ideas on composition and chemical changes by stating the radical
theory, believing that radicals, which function as a single group in a chemical process, combine with
oxygen in reactions. He also introduced the possibility of allotropy in chemical elements when he
discovered that diamond is a crystalline form of carbon.
However, much to his professional detriment, Lavoisier discovered no new
substances, devised no really novel apparatus, and worked out no improved
methods of preparation. He was essentially a theorist, and his great merit lay in the
capacity of taking over experimental work that others had carried out—without
always adequately recognizing their claims—and by a rigorous logical procedure,
reinforced by his own quantitative experiments, of expounding the true explanation
of the results. He completed the work of Black, Priestley and Cavendish, and gave a
correct explanation of their experiments.
Overall, his contributions are considered the most important in advancing chemistry
to the level reached in physics and mathematics during the 18th century.[8]
Contributions to biology
Lavoisier used a calorimeter to measure heat production as a result of respiration
in a guinea pig. The outer shell of the calorimeter was packed with snow, which
melted to maintain a constant temperature of 0 °C around an inner shell filled
with ice. The guinea pig in the center of the chamber produced heat which
melted the ice. The water that flowed out of the calorimeter was collected and
weighed. Lavoisier used this measurement to estimate the heat produced by the
guinea pig's metabolism. Lavoisier concluded, "la respiration est donc une combustion," That is,
respiratory gas exchange is a combustion, like that of a candle burning.[9]
Law and politics
Lavoisier received a law degree and was admitted to the bar, but never practiced as a lawyer. He did become interested in French
politics, and at the age of 26 he obtained a position as a tax collector in the Ferme Générale, a tax farming company, where he
attempted to introduce reforms in the French monetary and taxation system to help the peasants. While in government work, he
helped develop the metric system to secure uniformity of weights and measures throughout France.
Final days, execution, and aftermath
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Statue of Lavoisier, at
Hôtel de Ville, Paris
One of twenty-eight French tax collectors and a powerful figure in the deeply unpopular Ferme Générale,
Lavoisier was branded a traitor during the Reign of Terror by French Revolutionists in 1794. Lavoisier had
also intervened on behalf of a number of foreign-born scientists including mathematician Joseph Louis
Lagrange, granting them exception to a mandate stripping all foreigners of possessions and freedom.[10]
Lavoisier was tried, convicted, and guillotined on 8 May in Paris, at the age of 50.
Lavoisier was actually one of the few liberals in his position. One of his actions that may have sealed his fate
was a clash a few years earlier with the young Jean-Paul Marat whom he dismissed curtly after being
presented with a preposterous "scientific invention" (an object which showed a spectrum of light that was as
yet unseen — but did not measure anything). Marat subsequently became a leading revolutionary and one
of the French Revolution's more extreme "professional common men."
An appeal to spare his life so that he could continue his experiments was cut short by the judge: "The
Republic needs neither scientists nor chemists; the course of justice can not be delayed."[11]
Lavoisier's importance to science was expressed by Lagrange who lamented the beheading by saying: "Cela
leur a pris seulement un instant pour lui couper la tête, mais la France pourrait ne pas en produire une autre
pareille en un siècle." ("It took them only an instant to cut off his head, but France may not produce another
such head in a century.")[12][13]
One and a half years following his death, Lavoisier was exonerated by the French government. When his
private belongings were delivered to his widow, a brief note was included reading "To the widow of
Lavoisier, who was falsely convicted."
About a century after his death, a statue of Lavoisier was erected in Paris. It was later discovered that the
sculptor had not actually copied Lavoisier's head for the statue, but used a spare head of the Marquis de
Condorcet, the Secretary of the Academy of Sciences during Lavoisier's last years. Lack of money prevented
alterations being made. The statue was melted down during the Second World War and has not since been
replaced. However, one of the main "lycées" (highschools) in Paris and a street in the 8th arrondissement are
named after Lavoisier, and statues of him are found on the Hôtel de Ville (photograph, left) and on the
façade of the Cour Napoléon of the Louvre.
Selected writings
Opuscules physiques et chimiques (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lavoisier_-_Opuscules_physiques_et_chimiques.djvu)
(Paris: Chez Durand, Didot, Esprit, 1774). (Second edition, 1801 (http://books.google.com/books?id=ExkAAAAAQAAJ) )
L'art de fabriquer le salin et la potasse, publié par ordre du Roi, par les régisseurs-généraux des Poudres & Salpêtres (Paris, 1779).
Instruction sur les moyens de suppléer à la disette des fourrages, et d’augmenter la subsistance des bestiaux, Supplément à
l’instruction sur les moyens de pourvoir à la disette des fourrages, publiée par ordre du Roi le 31 mai 1785 (Instruction on the
means of compensating for the food shortage with fodder, and of increasing the subsistence of cattle, Supplement to the
instruction on the means of providing for the food shortage with fodder, published by order of King on May 31, 1785).
(with Guyton de Morveau, Claude-Louis Berthollet, Antoine Fourcroy) Méthode de nomenclature chimique (http://imgbase-
scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr/displayimage.php?album=692&pos=3) (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1787)
(with Fourcroy, Morveau, Cadet, Baumé, d'Arcet, and Sage) Nomenclature Chimique: Ou Synonymie Ancienne Et Moderne, Pour
Servir A L'Intelligence Des Auteurs (http://books.google.com/books?id=-bM5AAAAcAAJ) (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789)
Traité élémentaire de chimie, présenté dans un ordre nouveau et d'après les découvertes modernes (http://isnature.org/Files
/Lavoisier1789-Traite_elementaire_de_chimie.htm) (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789; Bruxelles: Cultures et Civilisations, 1965) (lit.
Elementary Treatise on Chemistry, presented in a new order and alongside modern discoveries) also here
(http://www.lavoisier.cnrs.fr/ice/ice_book_detail-fr-text-lavosier-Lavoisier-89-6.html)
(with Pierre-Simon Laplace) "Mémoire sur la chaleur (http://www.lavoisier.cnrs.fr/ice/ice_page_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&
bdd=lavosier&table=Lavoisier&typeofbookDes=Memoires&bookId=38&pageChapter=M%E9moire%20sur%20la%20chaleur&
pageOrder=1&facsimile=off&search=no&num=&nav=1) ," Mémoires de l’Académie des sciences (1780), pp. 355–408.
Mémoire contenant les expériences faites sur la chaleur, pendant l'hiver de 1783 à 1784, par P.S. de Laplace & A. K. Lavoisier
(http://www.lavoisier.cnrs.fr/ice/ice_page_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&bdd=lavosier&table=Lavoisier&
typeofbookDes=Memoires&bookId=65&
pageChapter=Premier%20m%E9moire%20contenant%20les%20exp%E9riences%20faites%20sur%20la%20chaleur,%20pendant%20l%27hiver%20de%20
%20%E0%201784,%20par%20P.S.%20de%20Laplace%20et%20A.L.%20%20Lavoisier&pageOrder=1&facsimile=off&search=no&
num=&nav=1) (1792)
Mémoires de physique et de chimie (1805: posthumous)
In translation
Essays Physical and Chemical (http://books.google.com/books?id=HxMAAAAAQAAJ) (London: for Joseph Johnson, 1776; London:
Frank Cass and Company Ltd., 1970) translation by Thomas Henry of Opuscules physiques et chimiques
The Art of Manufacturing Alkaline Salts and Potashes, Published by Order of His Most Christian Majesty, and approved by the
Royal Academy of Sciences (1784) trans. by Charles Williamos[14] of L'art de fabriquer le salin et la potasse
(with Pierre-Simon Laplace) Memoir on Heat:Read to the Royal Academy of Sciences, June 28, 1783, by Messrs. Lavoisier & De La
Place of the same Academy. (New York : Neale Watson Academic Publications, 1982) trans. by Henry Guerlac of Mémoire sur la
chaleur
Essays, on the Effects Produced by Various Processes On Atmospheric Air; With A Particular View To An Investigation Of The
Constitution Of Acids (http://books.google.com/books?id=-pQQAAAAIAAJ) , trans. Thomas Henry (London: Warrington, 1783)
collects these essays:
"Experiments on the Respiration of Animals, and on the Changes effected on the Air in passing through their Lungs." (Read to the1.
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Academie des Sciences, 3 May 1777)
"On the Combustion of Candles in Atmospheric Air and in Dephlogistated Air." (Communicated to the Academie des Sciences,
1777)
2.
"On the Combustion of Kunckel's Phosphorus."3.
"On the Existence of Air in the Nitrous Acid, and on the Means of decomposing and recomposing that Acid."4.
"On the Solution of Mercury in Vitriolic Acid."5.
"Experiments on the Combustion of Alum with Phlogisic Substances, and on the Changes effected on Air in which the Pyrophorus
was burned."
6.
"On the Vitriolisation of Martial Pyrites."7.
"General Considerations on the Nature of Acids, and on the Principles of which they are composed."8.
"On the Combination of the Matter of Fire with Evaporable Fluids; and on the Formation of Elastic Aëriform Fluids."9.
Method of chymical nomenclature: proposed by Messrs. De Moreau, Lavoisier, Bertholet, and De Fourcroy (1788) Dictionary
(http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/nomenclature.html)
Elements of Chemistry, in a New Systematic Order, Containing All the Modern Discoveries (Edinburgh: William Creech, 1790; New
York: Dover, 1965) translation by Robert Kerr of Traité élémentaire de chimie
1799 edition (http://books.google.com/books?id=adYKAAAAIAAJ)
1802 edition: volume 1 (http://www.archive.org/details/elementschemist01lavogoog) , volume 2 (http://www.archive.org
/details/elementschemist00lavogoog)
Some illustrations (http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b21000856.r=lavoisier.langEN) from 1793 edition
Some more illustrations (http://othmerlib.chemheritage.org/record=b103418