Unit8GenderRolesinCross-CulturalCon10texts

Unit8GenderRolesinCross-CulturalContextsContents Backgroundinformation Introductiontothetext Textandlanguagepoints ExercisesBackgroundinformation 1.Sex—Gender—GenderRoles—GenderIdentity Mostchildrendevelopaclear-cut(清晰的)senseofwhethertheyareboysorgirlsatayoungage.Thissenseofbeing“aboy”or“agirl”iscalledgenderidentity,atermthatcameintothemedicalliteratureinthe1950s. Formostchildren,theirgenderidentitydevelopssomewherebetween18and30monthsofage.Genderidentityisnotthesameasgender,whichiscommonlyusedtomeanthebiologicidentity.Asamatteroffact,therearemanydifferentdefinitionstothetermsmentionedinthetext.Thefollowingaredefinitionsofsometermsfromthenet: sexualidentity:aperson’sphysiologicalstatusasmaleorfemale性身份 genderidentity:acontinuousandpersistentsenseofoneselfasamaleorafemale性别身份，性向认同(一个人对自己是男性还是女性的自我认识) genderroleorsexrole:thebehaviors,attitudes,values,beliefsandsoonthataparticularculturalgroupconsidersappropriateformalesandfemalesonthebasisoftheirbiologicalsex性别角色 genderroleidentity:one'sunderstandingandacceptanceofgenderroles性别角色认同 genderorsexrolebehavior:whatpeople’sbehaviorsareactuallylike性别角色行为(包括两部份,一是性行为,牵涉到性欲、性反应等行为反应;一是性别行为,与一般所谓的男性气概与女性气质之行为有关) genderorsexrolestereotype:thesociallydeterminedmodelwhichcontainstheculturalbeliefsaboutwhatthegenderrolesshouldbe性别角色的刻板印象 2.Contraception(避孕)—familyplanning—birthcontrolControllingtheintroductionbybirthofanewmemberintoafamilyandintoacommunityinwhichthatfamilylives,isanemotionalandcontroversialissueinmanysocieties.Ontheonehand,thebirthofachildmayrepresentthejoyofanewmembertocarryonafamily’stradition,anation’smission,orareligion’smessage. Ontheotherhand,thebirthofachildmayrepresentonemoremouthtofeedandonemorebodytoclothefromanalreadylimitedsupply.Sofamilyplanning—birthcontrol—permitsschedulingnewmemberstoarriveatoptimum(最佳的)timesandunderoptimumconditions.Reliablemechanicalandchemicalmethodsforpreventingconception(怀孕)havebecomewidelyavailable. Witheffectivebirth-controldevices,medicinesandmethodsavailable,thechancesofbecomingpregnantaccidentallyhavebeenreduced,andthepossibleharmdonetowomen’shealthwasgreatlydiminished. 3. Bottle-feeding(人工哺育，奶粉喂养) Ifonewantstoknowsomethingaboutbottle-feeding,itisnecessarytotalkaboutbreast-feeding(母乳哺育)onthefirstplace.Breast-feedingwasthenormalsourceofnutritionforbabiesuntiltheIndustrialRevolution,whenwomenlefttheirhomestoworkinfactories,sparkinganeedforanalternativemethod.Thebabybottlewasgenerallyavailablebytheendof19thcentury,butwaswidelyusedonlybythepooruntilWorldWarII,whenitbecamefashionableamongthemiddleclass. Acontroversyaboutwhichmethod—bottleorbreast—waspreferable(更可取的)continuedfromthe1940suntilthebeginningofthe1980s,whentheAmericanAcademyofPediatrics(儿科学)cameoutstronglyinfavorofbreast-feeding.Fordecades,manyphysicianswhobelievedbreast-feedingbenefitedthebabyhadnoturgedthemethod’suse.Theyfeltthemethodpresentedthenewmotherwithtoomanydifficulties. Thegrowthofthenaturalchildbirthmovementamongwomenself-educatedaboutbirthissues,combinedwithresearchintothevaluesforthebabyofbreastmilk,ledtoashiftamongmothersandprofessionalsinfavorofbreast-feeding.Accordingtostatistics,asmanyas95percentofthewomenwhogivebirthispotentiallyabletobreast-feed.Thefactthatmanydonotisrelatedtotheirownlevelofeducation,tolackofencouragementbyhealthprofessionals,andtopersistentmythsaboutbreast-feeding. Todaywomenwithhigherlevelsofeducationaremorelikelytochoosebreast-feeding.Inhospitalswherestaffsupportbreast-feeding,asmanyas80percentofthenewmothersarelikelytobreast-feed.InChina,manymajorhospitalshavelaunchedadriveforbreast-feeding,theinfluencesofbreast-feedingeducationwidespreadandfar-reaching.Despitetheefforts,manyworkingwomenarestillforcedtochoosebottle-feeding,whichmaybethereflectionoftheirdilemma. 4. Daycare(日托)Theoldestday-carecenterinNorthAmerica,theLeila(//)DayNursery,startedin1878inNewHaven,Connecticut.Nurseriesflourishedinthelastquarterofthe19thcenturyinresponsetonewemploymentopportunitiesbroughtaboutbyindustrialinventions.Generally,thenurseriesbeganinmillorfactorycities. ThenurseryfounderstendedtobewealthyandinfluentialmenandwomenmotivatedbyVictorianinterestincharityandgoodworks.Asidefrominformalarrangementsmadewithfriends,relatives,orneighborstocareforachild,childdaycarecomesintwoforms:center-basedchildcareandfamilydaycare.Center-basedchildcarereferstoday-carefacilities,nurseryschools,etc.Familydaycare,bycontrast,isinahomesetting,withonetosixchildrenunderthecareofa“provider.” IntheUnitedStates,womenwithpreschoolchildrenarethefastest-growingsegmentofthelaborforce.Althoughmanywomenmayenjoytheirjobs,themostmajoritywithsmallchildrenworkbecausetheirincomeisneededtosupporttheirfamilies. Recognizingthatallaying(减轻)theiremployee’sfearsabouttheirchildrenenhancedworkerproductivityandmadethecompanyamoredesirableplacetowork,manycompanieswereinvolvedinsomeformofdaycarearrangements.Somechild-careexpertspointoutthatdaycareisgoodforchildrenifthequalityoftheday-carestaffisgood. Mostparentsarepayingasmuchastheycanaffordfordaycare.ForU.S.workingfamiliesinthelastquarterofthe20thcentury,childcarehasbecometheirfourthlargestexpenditureafterfood,housing,andtaxes.NearlyhalfofallAmericanfamiliesrelyoncarepurchasedincenter-basedchildcareorinfamilyday-carehomes.Familieswithtwochildrenmaybepayingasmuchas$10,000peryear.Introductiontothetext ThetextistakenfromJoanY.Gregg’sCommunication&Culture(Heinle&HeinlePublishers,Inc.,1992).Someotherbestsellersoftheauthorinclude:Past,Present&Future,Science&Society. ManyEnglishlearnersinChinamayhavedifficultiesdistinguishing“sex”from“gender.”So,tointroducethetopic,abasicdefinition,ifitcanberegardedasadefinition,wasgivenattheverybeginningofthetext.Peopletendtothinkthatgenderrolesarenaturalandstereotyped(para.1).Differentpeoplecanplaydifferentpartsinacertainsocialgroup. Therolesmaybeassignedtothemonthebasisoftheirsex,theirpositioninthefamily,theireconomicandsocialstatus,ortheirage.Theauthorapproachesgenderrolesthroughacross-culturalandcomparativeanalysisbyprovidingacasestudybyMead(para.2)andemphasizesherconclusionthatgenderrolesareculturallypatterned(para.3). Besides,therearemanyimportantsocialinfluencesthathelpshapeourgenderidentities.AccordingtoD.KimOpenshawfromtheDepartmentofFamilyandHumanDevelopment,theyareparentsandpeers,media(genderandthebodyinmassmedia,genderandageinthemedia),ethnicity,theschoolandreligion,amongwhichinfluencesfromtheschoolandthefamilyaregivengreateremphasisinthetext(para.4,5,6and7). Inthepast,onlyexceptionalwomen,suchasformerslaveHarrietTubman(//),whofoughtwithNortherntroopsandledmanyslavestofreedomduringtheAmericanCivilWar,brokeawayfromtraditionalwomen’sroles.Despitemanyefforts,evenuntiltodaytheunfavorablesituationforwomenisstilltoohardtochangebecauseofmanybiologicalorsocialorculturalreasons. Andmoreimportantly,whatweneedtodoisnottothinkofsomewaystochangebuttounderstandhoworwhyitissopatterned(para.8,9). <Break>Textandlanguagepoints 1.Sexreferstothebiologicaldifferencesbetweenmalesandfemales,especiallythevisibledifferencesinthesexualorgansandrelateddifferencesintheroleeachsexplaysinthereproductiveprocess.Genderreferstothesocialclassificationofmasculineandfeminine.Everysocietyrecognizesthesexualdivisionofthespecies(/5spi:Fi:z/)intomaleandfemale,butculturesdifferintermsofwhattheyconsidermasculineandfeminine(/5feminin/). However,somemale/femaledifferencesinbehaviorappeartobequitewidespread.Forexample,maleshavebeenobservedinvariousculturestobemorelikelytoinitiateactivity.Femaleshavebeenobservedtobemorealtruistic,thatis,morehelpfultoothers,thanmales.Again,however,wemustbecarefulaboutassumingthatmostofthequalitiestypicallyassociatedwitheithermenorwomenare“natural,”thatis,biologicallybasedanduniversal. InAmericanculture,forexample,itisassumedthatmenaremore“naturally”objectivethanwomen,thattheycanlookatproblemslogically,withoutemotionsdistortingtheirviews.Thus,itisargued,menarethe“natural”sextobescientistsorlawyers,becausetheyarecomfortabledealingwith“facts,”with“objectivereality.” Ontheotherhand,womenintheUnitedStatesarefrequentlyperceivedas“naturally”subjective,emotionalandillogical,relyingontheirfeelingstosolveproblemsandhandledifficultiesinthe“realworld,”astheysupposedlydointheir“natural”sphereofthehome. Womenareconsidered“naturally”vainabouttheirappearanceand“naturally”possessedofamaternalinstinct,theinclinationtonurtureandprotectchildren.Infact,thereisnothingatallnaturalanduniversalaboutthesestereotyped,sex-linkedcharacteristics.Theyare,asaresomanyotherdeeplyingrainedtraits,theproductofaspecificculturalupbringing. biological//a.relatingtobiology;relatingtothenaturalprocessesperformedbylivingthings生物学的；生物的 e.g.——Thebiologicalcycleofaplantisaffectedbylightandheat. ——Yourbiologicalclockisyourbody’snaturalhabitofsleeping,eating,growing,etc. ——Anadoptedchildmaywanttofindoutaboutitsbiologicalparents. gender//n.sexualidentity,especiallyinrelationtosocietyorculture;thefactofbeingmaleorfemale性别 e.g.——Discriminationongroundsofrace,gender,ageordisabilityisforbidden. ——Ithinksbothgendersareequallycapableoflookingafterchildren. masculine//a.oforrelatingtomenorboys;havingthequalitiesorappearancetraditionallythoughttobetypicalofmen男性的；阳刚的 e.g.——Theoperasingerhasadeep,booming,masculinevoice. ——Itwasamovielikelytoappealtoamasculineaudience. feminine//a.oforrelatingtowomenorgirls;havingthequalitiesorappearancetraditionallythoughttobetypicalofwomen女性的；娇柔的 e.g.——Societyhasn’tregardedscienceandengineeringasfeminineoccupations. —— Howfardoyouthinkthetraditionalfemininerolehaschanged? —— Peoplewouldbemuchbetterbalancedifwecouldbringoutthemasculinesideofwomenandthefemininesideofmen. initiate//v.tosetgoingbytakingthefirststep;tocausetobegin发起；开始 e.g.——Ourchurchinitiatedaprojecttosendreliefaidoverseas. ——Alargenumberofcompanieshaveinitiatedrecyclingprograms. ——Theyhavedecidedtoinitiatelegalproceedingsagainstthenewspaper. altruistic//a.willingtodothingswhichbenefitotherpeople,evenifitresultsindisadvantage利他的,无私心的 e.g.——Idoubtwhetherhermotivesfordonatingthemoneyarealtruistic—she’sprobablylookingforpublicity. ——HewasnomorealtruisticthantheotherSenators. associatesb/sthwith:tomakeaconnectioninone’smindbetweenonethingorpersonandanother联想e.g.——WenaturallyassociatethenameofDarwinwiththedoctrineofevolution.——I’veneverassociatedyouwiththisplace.——Shopperstendtoassociatecertainbrandnameswithhighquality. distort//v.giveafalseormisleadingaccountof;misrepresent e.g.——Thejournalistwasaccusedofdistortingthefacts. ——Thatnewspaperaccountsofinternationalaffairsaresometimesdistorted. perceive//v.tounderstandorthinkofsthinaparticularway感知；理解e.g.——Peoplenowperceivethatgreenissuesareimportanttoourfuture.——Intheeyesofacolor-blind,redmaybeperceivedasblue.——Thepastisoftenperceivedtobebetterthanthepresent. supposedly//ad.accordingtowhatisassumedtobetrue(butnotknownforcertain)想象上地；据推测e.g.——HewassupposedlyanAmerican. ——Howcouldasupposedlyintelligentpersonbesostupid? ——Richardwassupposedlyatall,dark-eyedhandsomeman. bepossessedof:tohaveaparticularqualityorfeature具有；拥有 e.g.——Shewaspossessedofexceptionalpowersofconcentration. ——Heispossessedofgreatwealth/goodhealth. maternal//a. oforlikeamother;relatingtoorcharacteristicofamotherormotherhoodormotherly母性的；母亲的e.g.——Manyanimalsdisplaymaternalinstinctsonlywhiletheiroffspringareyoungandhelpless.——Lackofmaternallovecanhaveaprofoundeffectonachild'spsychologicaldevelopment. ——AuntMarywasalarge,maternalwomanwhoworkedasanurseinachildren'shospital. vain//a.havingtoohighanopinionofone’slooks,abilities,etc(synonym:conceited)自负的；爱虚荣的e.g.——She’soneofthosevainpeoplewhocan’tpassamirrorwithoutlookingintoit.——She'sveryvainabouthergoodlooks. ——She'savaingirlwhoisalwaysthinkingaboutherfigure. inclination//n.apreferenceortendency;afeelingthatmakesapersonwanttodosth倾向；爱好e.g.——Youalwaysfollowyourowninclinationsinsteadofconsideringotherpeople’sfeelings. ——I’venoinclinationtofollowmymotherintoaccountancy. nurture//v.tofeedandtakecareofachildoraplantwhileitisgrowing;tohelpaplan,idea,feelingetctodevelop养育；培养 e.g.——Shewantstostayathomeandnurtureherchildren,notgoouttowork. ——Asarecordcompanydirector,hisjobistonurtureyoungtalent. ——Thegoaloftheeconomicpoliciesistocreatejobsandnurturenewindustries. stereotyped//a.fixedorsettledinform;lackingfreshnessororiginality;conventional模式化的；俗套的 e.g.——Teacherstendtohavestereotypedopinionsaboutnaughtypupils. ——Thepolicehavebeenaccusedofhavingstereotypedimagesofblackpeople. ——Wetriednottogivethechildrensexuallystereotypedtoys. ingrained//a.firmlyestablished;deeply-seated根深蒂固的e.g.——Theideaofdoingourdutyisdeeplyingrainedinmostpeople. ——ingrainedprejudices——theingrainedhabitsofalifetime trait//n.aparticularqualityinsomeone’scharacter;adistinguishingfeature显著的特点,特性 e.g.——Anne’sgenerosityisoneofhermostpleasingtraits. ——Arroganceisaveryunattractivecharactertrait. upbringing//n.thecareandtrainingthatparentsgivetheirchildrenwhentheyaregrowingup教育，教养 e.g.——Isitrighttosayallthecrimeshecommittedweresimplytheresultofhisupbringing? ——Hercountryupbringingexplainsherloveofnature. 英文中sex指的是男女两性之间的生理差异，尤指两者在性器官方面的外在差异以及在繁衍过程中各自所起的不同作用的差异；而gender指的是男性特质和女性特质的不同社会分工。每个社会团体都普遍接受不同物种之间的性别区分，将之分为男女（雌雄），但对男性特质和女性特质的区分，不同的文化有不同的看法。但男女两性的行为差异似乎是广为人知的。 比如，据观察，男性在各自不同文化中都可能会更主动、积极，而女性则现得比男性更无私，换句话说，即是更加乐于助人。但是，如果要说跟男性或女性密切相关的大多数特质都是“天生的”——所谓“天生的”，即指以生理差异为基础的、被人们普遍接受的东西——那么，我们就得小心了。比如，在美国，人们认为男性“天生”要比女性客观，男性看待问题更符合逻辑，不会因为情感而影响了看法。这样，男性当科学家和律师当然是“天生的”了，因为他们善于处理“事实”和“客观现实”。 反之，美国的女性则常常被视作“天生”主观，感情用事，缺乏条理，只会依赖感情去处理问题和解决“现实世界”中遇到的困难，就象她们在家庭领域中“天生的”表现一样。她们“天生地”对自己的容貌自视过高，“天生地”有母性的本能，有养育和保护孩子的倾向。事实上，这些既定的与性别相关的特质根本就不是天生的或被人们普遍接受的。跟许多其它根深蒂固的特质一样，它们都是一定文化教育的产物。 2.AnimportantstudyoftherelationshipbetweensexandgenderwascarriedoutbyanthropologistMargaretMeadinNewGuinea.Meadstudiedthreedifferentculturesandfoundthatmaleandfemaleroleswerepatterneddifferentlyineach.Forexample,amongtheArapesh(阿拉配什人),bothmenandwomenwereexpectedtoactinwaysAmericansconsider“naturally”feminine:Bothsexeswereconcernedwithtakingcareofchildren,withnurturingingeneral. Neithersexwasexpectedtobeaggressive.Inthesecondculture,theMundugumor(蒙杜古马人),bothsexeswerewhatAmericanswouldcallmasculine—aggressive,violent,andwithlittleinterestinchildren.Inthethirdsociety,theTchambuli(德昌布利人),thepersonalitiesofmalesandfemalesweredifferentfromeachother,buttheywereoppositetotheAmericanstereotypedconceptionsofmasculineandfeminine. Womenhadthemajoreconomicrole,showedcommonsenseandbusinessshrewdness,andcarriedoutthemundanetasks.Menwereinterestedinaestheticsandspentmuchtimedecoratingthemselves,gossiping,andwithother“frivolous”activities.Themenalsohadfeelingsthatwereeasilyhurtandtheysulkedalot. MargaretMead:(1901-78)aUSanthropologist,whostudiedthewaysinwhichparentsontheislandsofSamoa(/sE5mEE/萨摩亚群岛),Bali(/5bB:l/巴厘岛),andNewGuinea(/5^InI/新几内亚岛)taughttheirchildren.Shealsotriedtodiscoverwhethermalesandfemalesarebornwiththedifferencesinbehaviorthattheyshow,orwhethertheylearntobehavedifferentlyastheygrowupintheirparticularsocieties.Herbest-knownbookisComingofAgeinSamoa.玛格丽特·米德,美国杰出的人类学家,双性恋者 Whilestudyingasagraduatestudent,shehadtheopportunitytodosomefieldworkinSamoa,anislandgroupofthesouthernPacificOceaneast-northeastofFiji(/5fi:dVi:/斐济).InSamoa,shestudiedtheManu(/`mAnU:/)adolescentgirlsinrelationtoAmericanfemaleadolescentsandthroughethnographic(人种学的)findings,foundthatcultureinfluencespersonality,notgenetics. InDecember,1931,MargarettraveledtoNewGuinea,anislandinthesouthwestPacificOceannorthofAustralia,tostudytheArapeshandlatertheMudugumorandTchambulicultures.Here,herfieldworkconsistedofstudyingsexrolesinculture.MeadfoundthatintheArapeshculture,bothmenandwomenwereexpectedtobeequal.Thisculturewasfoundtobeverysimpleasbothgendersactivelyraisedthechildren.Ontheotherhand,theMudugumorculturewasveryfierce.Bothmenandwomenweremeanandaggressive.Oftenthechildrenwerelefttofendforthemselvesandinfantsofthewrongsexwerecommonlycastintotherivertodie. IntheTchambuliculture,Margaretfoundthatthesexrolesarereversed.Thewomenwerebriskandheartyandthemenwereinchargeofthehousehold.Theseculturaldifferenceswerethenpublishedinanotherbook,SexandTemperamentinThreePrimitiveSocieties;MargaretparticipatedinotherfieldworkprojectsinBaliwheresheexperiencedevenmoreculturaldiversity. Shestudiedseveralcultureswithoppositevaluesofsocietyandpersonalroleswithinonehundredmilesofoneanother.Sheintendedtodisprove(反驳)thecurrenttheorythatthemasculineandfeminineroleswereinnateandunchangeable.Shefoundthatthemasculineandfeminineattributesweredeterminedbythesystematiceffortfromtheparents,nottheproductofthesexuallyidentifiabledistinctions.ShefounddifferencesinattitudesandidentificationofrolesthatcrossedthesexuallinesamongthepeopleofthreedifferentculturesinthePacific. aggressive//a.behavinginanangry,threateningway,asifyouwanttofightorattacksomeone好斗的；侵略性的；攻击性的e.g.——Kidswhoplayviolentvideogamesshowmuchmoreaggressivebehaviorthanthosewhodon't.——Teachersapparentlyexpectacertainamountofaggressivebehaviorfromboys.——WhenIsaidno,shebecamerudeandaggressive. conception//n.somethingconceivedinthemind;aconcept,plan,design,idea,orthought观念；概念e.g.——Youhavenoconceptionatallofhowdifficultmylifewasinthosedays.——Theconceptionofthepictureisundeveloped. commonsensetheabilitytobehaveinasensiblewayandmakepracticaldecisions常识；判断力 e.g.——Useyourcommonsensewhendecidingwhenchildrenshouldgotobed. shrewdness//n.thequalityofbeingabletojudgeasituationaccuratelyandturnittoone’sownadvantage精明，机灵 e.g.——Withherlatestfilm,shehasprovenherselftobeadirectorofconsiderableshrewdnessandimagination.——Withgreatshrewdness,Janedecidednottorepeatthenewsshehadheardthatmorning. mundane//a.concernedwithordinarydailyliferatherthanreligiousmatters;ordinaryanduninteresting世俗的；平凡的；单调的 e.g.——Ileadaprettymundanelife;nothinginterestingeverhappenstome. ——Mundanematterssuchaseatinganddrinkingdonotinteresther. aesthetics//n.branchofphilosophydealingwiththeprinciplesofbeautyandartistictaste;anartisticallybeautifulorpleasingappearance美学；美观 e.g.——They'relookingforqualityconstruction,notaesthetics. frivolous//a.trivialorunimportant;sillyoramusing;havingnousefulorseriouspurpose(antonym:serious)琐碎的；可笑的；轻浮的e.g.——Ifeellikedoingsomethingcompletelyfrivoloustoday.——Shehasafrivolousnatureandwon'ttakeanythingseriously. ——Afrivolousattitudewon’thelpyouinthisprofession. sulk//v.tobesilentlyangryandrefusetobefriendlyordiscusswhatisannoyingorupsettingyou愠怒；生闷气e.g.——CindyalwayssulkswhenIwon'tbuyheranycandy. ——Whenwetoldhershecouldn'tgowithus,shewentandsulkedinherroom. 新几内亚人类学家玛格丽特米德对性别与性别分类之间的关系进行了一项重要的研究。通过对三个地区的不同文化进行研究，米德发现，它们各自的男性和女性的角色模