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O T T O M A N IN FA N T R Y M A N 1 9 1 4 –1 8 O SPR EY D A V ID N IC O LLE WARRIOR • 145 Following the BalkanWars of 1912–13, the Ottoman Empire undertook a massive military retraining programme. Although many histories have derided the Ottoman Army as a poor fighting force, this was more often due to poor leadership and logistics than the quality of their troops. The typical Ottoman soldier, the asker, was tough, well-trained, and courageous. Fighting from Gallipoli to Mesopotamia and to the Caucasus, against both regular Allied armies and the irregulars of the Arab Revolt, they proved themselves to be able frontline troops. Illuminated by first-hand accounts, period photographs and specially commissioned artwork, this is the first English-language title to focus exclusively on the Ottoman infantryman inWorldWar I. Colour artwork Photographs Unrivalled detail Clothing and equipment WWW.OSPREYPUBLISHING.COM DAVID NICOLLE ILLUSTRATED BY CHRISTA HOOK OTTOMAN INFANTRYMAN 1914–18 W A R R IO R • 145 OTTOMAN INFANTRYMAN 1914–18 Insights into the daily lives of history’s fighting men and women, past and present, detailing their motivation, training, tactics, weaponry and experiences OSPREY PUB L I SH ING WAR145 Cover.qxd:Layout 1 7/4/10 10:43 Page 1 WARRIOR • 145 OTTOMAN INFANTRYMAN 1914–18 DAVID NICOLLE ILLUSTRATED BY CHRISTA HOOK Series editors Marcus Cowper and Nikolai Bogdanovic WAR145 Title.qxd:Layout 1 4/11/09 10:10 Page 1 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 4 CHRONOLOGY 5 ENLISTMENT 11 TRAINING 16 DAILY LIFE 22 APPEARANCE AND WEAPONRY 28 BELIEF AND BELONGING 34 LIFE ON CAMPAIGN 38 THE SOLDIER IN BATTLE 49 MUSEUMS, RE-ENACTMENT AND COLLECTING 58 BIBLIOGRAPHY 60 GLOSSARY 61 INDEX 64 3 War145 Inners.qxd:Layout 1 4/11/09 11:33 Page 3 INTRODUCTION The Ottoman Empire’s involvement in World War I, when it allied itself with Germany and the other Central Powers against its traditional ally, Britain, can be traced back beyond the ‘Young Turk’ revolution of 1908. However, that event brought to power a group of enthusiastic patriots, mainly military officers, who, when they failed to receive the support they expected from Britain and France, turned to Germany and her allies. The remarkable resilience of the Ottoman Army in World War I can also be traced back to the Young Turk Revolution. Political and social changes that followed this event had a major impact upon the Ottoman Army, not least upon its recruitment, while new military laws were designed to modernize all aspects of the Ottoman military. Improvements were clearly needed, as the Ottoman Empire faced a daunting array of threats, not only from traditional rivals like Russia but also from old friends like Britain and France. Though the new Ottoman Government tried to cultivate good relations with all its neighbours, to give itself time to modernize and strengthen, the Great Powers had already agreed to divide the Ottoman state into ‘spheres of influence’. An Anglo-Russian entente in 1907 led the Ottomans to fear that their traditional ally, Great Britain, would no longer help them against the ever-threatening Russians. All this strengthened the hands of those who argued in favour of closer links with Imperial Germany, which had been providing military advice and aid since 1883. Five years later Germany had also won a contract to build a new railway to Baghdad (the so-called Berlin to Baghdad Railway) which, though never completed, came to be seen as a strategic threat to British domination in India and the Indian Ocean. OTTOMAN INFANTRYMAN 1914–1918 Newly commissioned officers at the time of their graduation, probably in 1914. (author’s collection, from M. Youden) 4 War145 Inners.qxd:Layout 1 4/11/09 11:33 Page 4 5 Though the Young Turk Revolution led to a period of political upheaval it also instigated a series of reforms in a desperate attempt to save the Ottoman state from final collapse. Invasions by Italy and then the Balkan states delayed this reform programme, but a new parliament was elected and held its first session only a few months before the outbreak of World War I, its members reflecting the diversity of the Ottoman Empire even after losing almost all its Balkan provinces: 142 were Turks, 69 Arabs and the others Armenians, Greeks or Jews. The great majority were, of course, Muslims but 36 were followers of other faiths, religious toleration having been a hallmark of the Ottoman state since its creation. Even on the eve of World War I it was not religion but recently imported Western concepts of nationalism that were the main cause of friction, and here all groups were tainted – Turks, Armenians, Greeks, and even to some extent Arabs and Kurds. Nevertheless, these nationalist tensions often had a religious dimension and could result in violence. Yet even today, this tends to be portrayed in a lopsided manner. Christian accounts focused on Christian suffering, and Muslim accounts on Muslim suffering. In the Western world, as the historian G. Dyer put it; ‘Muslim massacres of Christians are a heinous and inexcusable outrage; Christian massacres of Muslims are, well, understandable and forgivable.’ CHRONOLOGY 1914 2 August Ottoman–German alliance signed. 3 August Britain commandeers two battleships being built for the Ottoman Navy. 10–11 August German warships Goeben and Breslau enter Ottoman waters. September Russian forces occupy part of neutral Iran along Ottoman frontier. 28–29 October Ottoman Navy bombards Russian Black Sea ports. 1 November British sink Ottoman vessel near Izmir, Russian forces cross the Caucasus frontier and attack Ottoman Third Army. 2 November Russia declares war on the Ottoman Empire, British Navy bombards Aqaba. 3 November Anglo-French bombardment of the Dardanelles; Britain and France declare war on Ottoman Empire. 11 November Ottoman Sultan and senior religious leaders declare jihad against Russia and her allies. 22 November British-Indian forces occupy Basra; Ottoman-led Bedouin auxiliaries seize control of al-Arish in Egypt. Racial attitudes towards Ottoman troops There was a disturbing degree of racism and ‘Social Darwinism’ amongst British and even more so amongst Australian observers of the Ottoman Army during World War I. General Hamilton, the Scottish commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force during the Gallipoli campaign, clearly regarded his enemy as an inferior breed; ‘Here are the best the old country can produce; the hope of the progress of the British ideal in the world; and half of them are going to swap lives with Turks whose relative value to the well- being of humanity is to theirs as is a locust to a honey- bee… Let me bring my lads face to face with the Turks in the open field, we must beat them every time because British volunteer soldiers are superior individuals to Anatolians, Syrians or Arabs and are animated with a superior ideal and an equal joy in battle… To attempt to solve the problem by letting a single dirty Turk at the Maxim [machine gun] kill ten – twenty – fifty – of our fellows on the barbed wire – each of whom is worth several dozen Turks, is a sin of the Holy Ghost category.’ Quoted by J. Macleod, Reconsidering Gallipoli (Manchester, 2004) p. 189. War145 Inners.qxd:Layout 1 4/11/09 11:33 Page 5 6 6 December Ottomans launch a counter-offensive against the Russians, resulting in defeat and massive Ottoman casualties. 8 December British–Indian forces take confluence of Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Iraq. December–January Allies occupy the nominally Greek and Ottoman Aegean islands of Limnos, Imroz and Bozcaada. 1915 15 January Ottoman Army leaves Beersheba in Palestine to invade Egypt; Ottoman forces in southern Iraq also try to occupy oil-producing Ahwaz area of south-western neutral Iran and Ottoman–Yemeni auxiliaries raid British Aden frontier. 2–3 February First Ottoman attempt to cross the Suez Canal is defeated. 19 February Allied fleets start bombarding the Dardanelles forts. February–March Ottoman defence of the Straits is reorganized. 4 March British Marines briefly land on the Gallipoli Peninsula. 18 March Defeat of attempt by Allied fleets to break through the Dardanelles; during March the Russian Navy bombards the Turkish coast several times, the Ottoman Sixth Army is established to defend the Bosphorus; Ottoman forces from Yemen seize control of the British Aden Protectorate’s frontier. 25 April British land on the Gallipoli Peninsula and French land at Kumkale; during April, Armenian rebels seize Van; in late April the Ottoman Sultan orders all Armenian soldiers in the Ottoman Army to be disarmed. May Inconclusive fighting on the Gallipoli front; renewed Russian offensive on the Caucasus front and eastern Anatolia; Russians evict Ottomans from Lake Urmia in neutral Iran. June Inconclusive fighting on the Gallipoli front. July Inconclusive fighting on the Gallipoli front; on the Caucasus front Ottomans make minor gains north of Lake Van; Ottoman forces take Lahij, defeat a British relief force and invest Aden. 6 August New British landing on the Gallipoli Peninsula fails to make breakthrough; during August the Ottomans retake Van from the Russians and Armenians. September British advance up the Tigris and to a lesser extent the Euphrates in Iraq, taking Kut al-Amara. War145 Inners.qxd:Layout 1 4/11/09 11:33 Page 6 7 November Continued British advance in Iraq. 22–25 November Ottomans defeat British at the battle of Ctesiphon, south of Baghdad. 7 December Ottomans besiege retreating British in Kut al-Amara. 19–20 December Allies begin evacuation of Gallipoli Peninsula. 1916 8–9 January Final Allied evacuation of the Gallipoli Peninsula. 14 January Renewed Russian offensive on the Caucasus front; unsuccessful British attempt to break siege of Kut al-Amara from January to April. 15 February Russians take Erzurum on the Caucasus front. April Russian naval landing on Black Sea coast results in their taking Trabzon; Ottoman Third Army retires west of Erzincan; Ottoman Second Army starts moving towards the Caucasus front (not completed until August). 29 April British surrender in Kut al-Amara. 6 May Ottomans retake Uzun island in the Gulf of Izmir. May–June Ottoman counter-attacks retake territory near Trabzon; Ottoman units in Iraq are reformed into the Sixth Army, which also takes Kermanshah area of western Iran. 27 June The sharif of Mecca proclaims his independence (start of the Arab Revolt). July Renewed Russian offensive takes Bayburt and Erzincan; an Ottoman force invades Egyptian Sinai; Ottoman XV Army Corps sent to support the Austro-Hungarians and Germans in Galicia on Russian front. 4 August Ottoman advance across Sinai Peninsula halted at Romani and retires; during August, Ottomans temporarily retake territory west of Lake Van; Second Army established around Diyarbakir but is too late to assist Third Army before winter. 27 August Romania enters war on Allied side, Ottomans send three more divisions to Galicia plus two to support Bulgarians against Romanians. 18 September Ottoman troops attack Greek ‘pirates’ holding Alibey island near Ayvalik. War145 Inners.qxd:Layout 1 4/11/09 11:33 Page 7 8 3 November Ottoman troops attack ‘pirates’ holding Kekova island off Mediterranean coast; Ottomans send a division to support the Bulgarians facing the British across the Struma River. 1917 6 January Ottoman artillery sinks British seaplane carrier at Kastelorizo; during January, Ottoman forces in Palestine establish a defensive line between Gaza and Beersheba; renewed British advance in Iraq. 25 February British retake Kut al-Amara in Iraq. 10–11 March British occupy Baghdad. 16–27 March Ottomans defeat British offensive at first battle of Gaza in Palestine; during March the Russian Revolution ends Russian offensive operations on the Caucasus front. 17–19 April Ottomans defeat British offensive at second battle of Gaza; late in April Ottomans start to advance on the Caucasus front where the Russian withdrawal continues, rendering a planned Ottoman spring offensive unnecessary. August Some Ottoman forces are withdrawn from European and Balkan fronts in preparation for planned Yildirim campaign to drive British from Iraq. 6 September Huge explosion in Istanbul destroys much of the stores and munitions intended for the Yildirim campaign; later in September the original Yildirim plan is abandoned and most of the Yildirim Army is sent to Palestine. 17 October Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany visits the battlefield of the Gallipoli Peninsula. 29 October Yildirim Army HQ established in Jerusalem. 31 October New British offensive in Palestine leads to Ottoman defeat at third battle of Gaza. 16 November British seize Jaffa. 25 November Ottoman counter-offensive halts British advance along Palestinian coast. 7 December Russians request an Armistice with Ottomans. 8 December Jerusalem surrenders to the British. 18 December Truce agreed between Ottoman Army and newly formed Transcaucasian Republic on the Caucasus front. War145 Inners.qxd:Layout 1 4/11/09 11:33 Page 8 S PA IN FR A N C E IT A LYA U S TR IA -H U N G A R Y G R EE C EBU LG AR IA RO M AN IA SE RB IA AL BA NI A R U S S IA R U S S IA A FG H A N IS TA N CH IN A P ER S IA A N AT O LI A A R A B IA ET H IO P IA K EN YA UG AN DA B EL G IA N C O N G O S U D A N EG YP T A LG ER IA (F re nc h) LI B YA (It al ia n) FR EN C H W ES T A FR IC A FR EN C H EQ U AT O R IA L A FR IC A N IG ER IA (B rit is h) TO GO LA ND (G er m an ) C A M ER O O N (G er m an ) IN D IA (B rit is h) Is ta nb ul Tu ni s Tr ip ol i Gh ad am es Gh at Be ng ha zi Ca iro Kh ar to um Ad di s Ab ab a Ad en Sa na ER IT R EA (It al ia n) Je ru sa le m Da m as cu s Ya sd Ba gh da d KU W AI T (B rit is h) QA TA R BA HR AI N (B rit is h) SW IT ZE RL AN D (vi aG er m an su bm ar in es ) B LA C K S EA M ED IT ER R A N EA N S EA CA SP IAN SEA D A R FU R SO M AL IL AN D (It al ia n) SO M AL IL AN D (B rit is h) SO M AL IL AN D (F re nc h) (B ri ti sh ) M ec ca (R as hi ds ) (S au di s) (I dr is id s) M ed in a ( H a s h e m i t e s ) (fr om Ot to m an Co ns ul at e in Du tc h Ea st In di es ) RED SEA Ba sr a Ot to m an ex pe di tio na ry fo rc es ou ts id e Ot to m an te rr ito ry Sa nu ss ii nv as io n of Eg yp t Ot to m an su pp or tf or an ti- En te nt e up ris in g or un re st Ot to m an te rr ito ry in 19 14 No m in al Ot to m an te rr ito ry un de r B rit is h oc cu pa tio n in 19 14 Ot to m an Va ss al te rr ito ry in Ar ab ia No m in al Ot to m an zo ne on th e ‘E m pt y Qu ar te r’ of Ar ab ia No m in al Br iti sh zo ne on th e ‘E m pt y Qu ar te r’ of Ar ab ia St at es an d th ei r a ss oc ia te d em pi re s or co lo ni es w hi ch ev en tu al ly fo rm ed pa rt of th e an ti- Ge rm an En te nt e du rin g th e Fi rs t W or ld W ar Ot he r M em be rs of th e Ce nt ra lP ow er s al lia nc e (G er m an y, Au st ro -H un ga ry an d Bu lg ar ia , p lu s th e Ge rm an co lo ni es Te rr ito ry ce de d by th e Ot to m an Em pi re to Bu lg ar ia (c ur re nt ly an al ly ) i n 19 15 Ne ut ra l s ta te s Ru ss ia n zo ne of in flu en ce in Pe rs ia Br iti sh zo ne of in flu en ce in Pe rs ia Zo ne s of co nf lic t ( fro nt s) w ith in Ot to m an te rr ito ry Ar ea of an ti- Ot to m an up ris in gs or un re st Ar ea s of pr o- Ot to m an or Ot to m an su pp or te d re vo lts w ith in En te nt e an d ne ut ra l t er rit or y The Ottoman Empire during World War I 9 War145 Inners.qxd:Layout 1 4/11/09 11:33 Page 9 28 December Ottoman–Russian Armistice signed at Brest-Litovsk. 1918 January–April Ottoman forces retake territory in Caucasus, lost in 1878. 19 February Liman von Sanders placed in overall command of the Palestine front. 21 February British take Jericho. 9 March Renewed British offensive in Palestine. 26–31 March British cross the river Jordan but are forced back after battle of Amman. 26 April Ottomans retake Kars on the Caucasus front. 30 April British again cross the river Jordan and take al-Salt. 3 May Ottomans retake al-Salt; during May and June Transcaucasian Republic fragments into separate Georgian, Armenian and Azerbaijani states. 28 June Ottoman Sultan Mehmed V dies, succeeded by Mehmed VI. 14 July Ottomans counter-attack in Palestine and Jordan achieves limited success. August British forces reach Baku oil fields in the eastern Caucasus. 14 September British forces driven out of Baku by Ottoman units supporting new Republic of Azerbaijan; Ottomans retain control of Azerbaijan and part of new Republic of Armenia until end of war. 17 September Arab Revolt cuts communications between Ottoman forces in Palestine and Damascus. 19 September Major British offensive shatters Ottoman front in Palestine. 1 October Damascus falls to Arab Revolt. 2 October Australians enter Beirut and Damascus. 25 October Allied forces take Aleppo in northern Syria. 30 October Armistice signed between Ottoman and Allied representatives, agreeing that Dardanelles be opened to Allied fleets, Allied occupation of strategic locations, surrender of Ottoman forces in areas to be occupied by the Allies, demobilization of most Ottoman forces elsewhere. 10 War145 Inners.qxd:Layout 1 4/11/09 11:33 Page 10 An army recruiting desk at the time of the Ottoman Empire’s entry into World War I. Headgear was a primary form of religious and cultural identification and the presence of a trilby and a turban alongside the kalpaks and fezes shows the multicultural character of the Ottoman state. (author’s collection) 3 November British enter Mosul. 10 November Ottomans leave Mosul. 17 November British reoccupy Baku in the Caucasus. 1919 January Ottoman garrison in Medina surrenders to the Sharifian Arab Army (Arab Revolt). April XV Army Corps at Erzurum launches Turkish War of Liberation against foreign occupation. ENLISTMENT As part of his efforts at military reform, Sultan Abdul Hamid II (1876–1909) tried extending conscription fairly to all Muslim men within the Ottoman Empire, though retaining traditional exemptions allowed to the inhabitants of Istanbul, Albania, Najd, Hejaz, Tripoli, Benghazi, and the Middle Eastern nomadic tribes who were beyond Ottoman control anyway. Higher education and religious students were similarly exempted. By this time a steady flow of Muslim refugees from territory lost by the Ottoman Empire was another major source of highly motivated recruits. In 1908, however, the new Young Turk government introduced laws that compelled non-Muslim Ottoman citizens to be conscripted into the army. This contravened the Islamic shariah law upon which the Ottoman Sultanate was supposedly based and, for the first time, non-Muslims had to bear an equal burden in national defence. Only a handful of specific exemptions remained, one being mentioned in the memoirs of a young Armenian, Bedros Sharian, who was called up in 1914. He recalled that; ‘In the beginning of the 11 War145 Inners.qxd:Layout 1 4/11/09 11:33 Page 11 Military volunteers from an Islamic brotherhood, identified as Qadiri dervishes, outside an official building in Istanbul. (from Harbi Mecmuasi ‘War Magazine’, 1915; Askeri Müzesi, Istanbul) war the licensed teachers and preachers were exempt from military service.’ In fact Sharian was arrested as a draft dodger because he had managed to find employment as a teacher after the mobilization call (Pye, 1938, p. 33). The normal enlistment age was 20, though men as young as 18 were allowed to j