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通用航空概述

2018-02-18 15页 doc 61KB 29阅读

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通用航空概述通用航空概述 通用航空概述 (General Aviation – An Overview) (美国通用航空简介) 什么是通用航空,也许回答这个问题最好的方式是列出通用航空不是什么。首先,通用航空不是军用航空,其次,通用航空也不属于有定期航班的商用航空。此外的所有用途的航空在很大程度上都可以归类到通用航空这个概念。这些具体的用途如下,但通用航空的概念不仅限于此。 1、 私人娱乐和运动飞行; 2、 航拍和航空探测; 3、 空中播种和喷洒农药; 4、 公务飞行; 5、 空中救援; 6、 飞行训练; 7、 警务飞...
通用航空概述
通用航空概述 通用航空概述 (General Aviation – An Overview) (美国通用航空简介) 什么是通用航空,也许回答这个问题最好的方式是列出通用航空不是什么。首先,通用航空不是军用航空,其次,通用航空也不属于有定期航班的商用航空。此外的所有用途的航空在很大程度上都可以归类到通用航空这个概念。这些具体的用途如下,但通用航空的概念不仅限于此。 1、 私人娱乐和运动飞行; 2、 航拍和航空探测; 3、 空中播种和喷洒农药; 4、 公务飞行; 5、 空中救援; 6、 飞行训练; 7、 警务飞行和空中灭火。 用于通用航空的飞机有大有小,从小型飞机、单引擎飞机、布质蒙皮飞机一直到上千万的喷气式公务机。通用飞机也包括直升机,经修复的退役军机,设计应用复合材料的自制飞机。通用航空这个术语出现在20世纪50年代。在此之前,人们谈论的是私人飞行或者是公务飞行。不考虑通用航空这个术语及其应用的话,非军用航空和非商业定期航班用途的航空(也就是现在所谓的通用航空)的历史可以追溯到动力飞行的初期。 在威尔伯•莱特(Wilbur Wright's)和奥威尔?莱特(Orville Wright's)兄弟的发明受到人们的关注后不久,美国人开始梦想这项先进的科学技术可以带来的更伟大的梦想。许许多多存在不同信仰的人开始对未来进行各种各样的预言,正如历史学家约瑟夫• 科文(Joseph Corn)所说的“飞行的福音”。有的人认为在将来飞机会像当时的汽车一样普及,成为一种常用的交通工具。有的人甚至认为将来几乎每个家庭的车库都会有一架飞机。另一些人认为,未来人们加入到航空产业工作会给美国的黑人和妇女带来更多的社会公平。航空业没有完全实现这些人的预言。事实上,在20世纪的大多数时间里,航空业的很多领域,包括军用飞行和商业飞行,禁止妇女和非裔美国人的参与。然而,通用航空第一次给黑人和妇女带来了参与飞行的机会。 现在人们认为,真正意义上的通用航空出现在20世纪20年代中期之后。然而,在此之前,一些个人和组织开始试验航空科技的应用,这些实验以后都成为了通用航空的重要组成部分。例如,飞机用于防止农作物病虫害、航空探测的首次应用以及首次包机飞行都可以追溯到20世纪20年代中期以前。除此之外,用于私人飞行的第一架飞机的生产和交易也发生在飞行史的初期。一些富有的个人和飞行演飞行员从早期的航空制造商:如莱特兄弟以及他们的首要竞争对手 —— 格伦• 柯蒂斯(Glenn Curtiss),那里购置了飞机。就在第一次世界大战之前,克莱德•塞斯纳(Clyde Cessna),一个自学成才的表演飞行员,草草地经营着他的第一个飞机制造公司,他建立这件飞机制造公司的初衷是为了造出并出售小型的相对便宜的私人飞机。 塞斯纳和与他有着同样的理想的人,在20世纪二十年代和三十年代初期,在他们反复地试着设计和制造一种他们理想中的廉价飞机的过程中,遇到了许许多多的困难。在他们实现“每个车库有一架飞机”的宏伟目标时,他们遇到的其中一个很大的障碍是飞机发动机。从20世纪20年代一直到20世纪三十年代,飞机发动机仍然是飞机上最昂贵的部分。相对价便宜的可以用到飞机上的发动机,如OX-5,体积大、重量大,以至于他们决定转向设计制造大飞机。因为大多数较小的,较轻的发动机是欧洲生产的,而不是美国,发动机价格非常昂贵而且很难得到。就这样,设计制造人们能买得起的、属于个人的私人飞机的梦想被搁置了下来。 20世纪20年代末,查尔斯•林德伯格的跨大西洋飞行使得通用航空得到了极大的发展。他的这一著名的伟大壮举,使得人们对各种各样的飞行产生了极大地热情。特别是他的飞行鼓励人们对航空科学技术的各种各样的应用继续进行研究和探索。与此同时,随着航空业的不断发展,联邦政府和州一级的政府颁布实施了一系列法规条例,这使得得到政府的飞行许可比以往稍微困难。在这些法规条例在催生了航空运输业的同时,这些法规条例也要求飞行员拿到飞行执照,以及飞机获得飞行许可证。这些措施无疑使得通用航空更加的安全。在此之后,自行设计制造飞机、自学飞行驾驶技术的历史走到了尽头。 政府也同样颁布实施了一些法令旨在鼓励私人飞行。在20世纪30年代,联邦政府推行了一系列私人飞行支持者所希望的政策刺激了通用航空的发展。例如,尤金•维达尔(Eugene Vidal),他领导联邦政府商务部的航空部门,致力于推动鼓励设计和制造安全和廉价的飞机 的相关政策的产生。他希望能生产出一架只卖700美元的飞机,大概和一辆汽车有同等的价格。有的飞机设计没有符合这些政策,总的来说就是失败的。在20世纪30年代末期,新成立的民用航空局发起了一个飞行员训练项目,就是人么熟知的民间飞行员训练项目。这个项目旨在增加美国飞行员的数量。这些飞行员不仅仅是通用飞机飞行员,在战争的情况下,这些参加过这个训练项目的飞行员能够迅速转变为军用飞机飞行员。这个项目的结果不完全是它的初衷,它不仅仅增加了美国飞行员的数量。而且这些飞行员中包括男性和女性,包括白人和黑人。 20世纪20年代末和20世纪30年代,通用航空迎来了发展的黄金时代。在美国南部与迅速传遍美国的棉桃象甲虫的斗争中、在林区防治病虫害以及在产粮区进行空中播种,都显示了通用航空的重要作用。公务飞行也得到了极大的发展。在商人及企业管理者进行商务旅行的过程中,他们也看到了,在他们最方便的时间他们想飞到他们想去的任何地方的时候,通用航空的巨大价值。这些公务旅行的人,帮助并使得通用航空飞机制造产业变得并保持健康发展。就在这个时期,第一种型号的廉价小型飞行器出现了。这款廉价小型飞机是出现在1929 年的Aeronca C-2 。Aeronca C-2 的售价是2000美元,采用Aeronca公司生产的36马力的发动机。在此之后美国的引擎制造商,最先开始于Continental,开始着手研制生产小型廉价的飞机发动机。在20世纪30年代美国的Continental, Lycoming 和Franklin公司全都开始为小型生产耐用的廉价小型发动机。这些发动机的功率有40马力增加到90马力。这些引擎推动着20世纪30年代末最受欢迎的飞机,风笛手J-3幼畜,(Piper J-3 “Cub”)。在20世纪30年代的末期,幼畜这型飞机的售价在1000美元以下。 第二次世界大战的到来,对于通用航空来说,被后人证明既是机遇又是挑战。在第二次世界大战期间,和一战时一样,通用航空在很大程度上被人们给雪藏了。但是,通用航空飞行员和通用飞机制造商在战争中都贡献了自己的力量。这些飞行员组建了民间空中巡逻队,这个民间组织最终成为了美国空军的后备力量。民间空中巡逻队在战争中执行了很多任务。他们执行海岸巡逻任务监视敌军潜艇。除此之外,他们有的飞往森林上空监视火情,有的执行人道主义救援任务,如:医疗救助飞行,向被暴风雪袭击的地区或者受其它自然灾害袭击灾区空投物资。他们的活动使得一定数量的通用航空机场在战争期间保持开放和运营。通用飞机制造商在战争中生产了大量的军用产品。首先他们成为了转包生产者,用他们技术娴熟的工人为军用飞机制造商生产的飞机生产飞机零部件。他们也生产一定数量的飞机用于Aerial-Observation-Post(空中侦察定标)项目,在这个项目中,飞行员驾驶小型飞机为炮兵指示目标所在的位置。也有一些飞机制造商改进了他们生产的小型飞机,使得他们可以作为空军战斗滑翔机项目的训练滑翔机。 在许多方面,第二次世界大战成为通用航空史上一个重要的节点。至少在设计制造方面,许多人希望这种高度的活跃氛围在战后会持续甚至增强。鉴于在战争期间很多个人被训练为飞行员,通用飞机制造商认为私人飞机将快速普及的时代即将到来。但是他们的期望过高了,正如历史给我们展现的一样,第二次世界大战不是通用航空黄金时代开始的标志,而是这个时代结束的标志。 在第二次世界大战结束后的几十年的某几段时期内,通用航空继续成长发展。例如公务飞行仍然是通用航空里健康发展的一部分。它见证了重要的航空技术的变革,涡轮发动机技术开始应用到喷气式发动机和涡轮螺旋桨发动机驱动的小型飞机。这类高端的公务机仍然有需求。在20世纪40年代末,直升飞机开始出现。虽然这种空中交通交通工具没有成为私人飞行的选择,但是它们却在医疗救援和治安执法方面扮演者重要角色。最大的技术进步是在航空电子技术方面,这使得通用飞机飞行员可以使用无线电和导航设备。今天,仅用几百美元,一个飞行员甚至可以很容易地驾驶一架只配置有指南针的小型幼畜J-3飞机,就可以精确的确定他或她的位置,然后飞行离他最近的机场。 就私人飞行这个人们提到通用航空就会首先想到的飞行方式来说,它在战后经历了很多困难的时期。首先,先前提到的有的通用飞机制造商预期的私人购置飞机的欣欣向荣景象并没有出现。许多通用飞机制造公司,包括那些在20世纪20年代到30年代非常成功的飞机制造公司都退出了通用飞机生产领域。但依然有一些飞机制造公司坚持了下来,如塞斯纳(Cessna),风笛手(Piper),比奇(Beech)等。20世纪50到70年代,他们不得不非常努力地去重建私人飞机市场。当他们的飞机制造技术从布质蒙皮飞机转向全金属飞机时,他们取得了一定的成功。在1980年,私人飞机市场和飞行员的数量达到了顶峰。在20世纪的最后20年,通用航空业,特别就私人飞机这块来说,一直在努力挣扎。 通用航空市场面临着许多问题。首先,在20世纪70到80年代,针对飞机制造商的法律诉讼逐渐增多。在这些法律诉讼的花费,特别是在与购置责任保险相关联的法律诉讼方面的花费,推升了私人飞机的价格。考虑到,大多数应用到这些飞机上的技术(飞机的结构和发动机)自20世纪五、六十年代以来没有多大的改进,新的,更昂贵的价格调整,特别是对于潜在的消费者来说是行不通的。这些新的价格使得私人飞机除了少数人能购买之外,大多数人只能奢望。尽管国会努力帮助解决飞机制造商的责任保险问题,通用航空业仍然在等待着复兴。还值得一提的是,美国具有飞行执照的飞行员在1980年达到了顶峰。尽管一些组织一直在强调这种下降的趋势,从20世纪90年代到现在,这种下降趋势人在继续。 一个让人值得兴奋地地方是,自行制造飞机运动的兴起。在20世纪30年代,联邦和州政府颁布法规,禁止私人建造飞机和私人飞行他们自制的飞机。在20世纪50年代初,一个叫做实验飞行器协会(Experimental Aircraft Association 【EAA】)的组织成立,旨在推动自行建造飞机的复兴。他们非常成功,尽管工厂制造飞机的产量增长在20世纪的最后二十年非常的缓慢,但是自行建造飞机却飞速发展。实验飞行器协会,也迎来了他的社会地位,一些个人决定保持飞机的黄金飞行年龄。再20世纪八、九十年代,许多飞行爱好者包括自行建造者和飞机维护修理人员,每年都会去参加在实验飞行器协会所在地,威斯康辛州的奥喀什(Oshkosh)举行的大约一周的一年一度的航空盛会。 通用航空史的多数部分和 “飞行的福音”的梦想和信仰是符合的。尽管这些梦想和信仰从未被完全实现过,这些梦想和信仰被保留着。尽管有时现实似乎会使得“飞行的福音”的目标不能被实现,但是美国人对于航空科学技术(正如对于其它血多的科学技术一样)的热情使得这些梦想永远存在。不管这个梦想能否在另一个世纪生存下来,它仍将被看到。 西北工业大学、航空学院2007级本科生,李茂翻译自Dr. Janet Bednarek 的通用航空概述,General Aviation - An Overview General Aviation - An Overview Dr. Janet Bednarek Perhaps the best way to define general aviation is to begin by listing what it is not. General aviation is not military aviation and it is not scheduled commercial aviation. To a great extent, all other uses of aviation in the United States fall into the category of general aviation. These uses include, but are not limited to, private and sport flying, aerial photography and surveying, crop dusting, business flying, medical evacuation, flight training, and the police and fire fighting uses of aircraft. The airplanes used in general aviation range from small, single-engine, fabric-covered aircraft to multi-million dollar business jets. They also include helicopters, restored war birds, and homebuilt aircraft designed to use advanced composite technology. The term general aviation came into use during the 1950s. Before that time, commentators talked of private flying or business flying. Regardless of the term or terms used, the non-military and non-commercial airline uses of aviation date back to the very early history of powered flight. Shortly after Wilbur and Orville Wright's invention came to public attention, people in the United States began to dream big dreams of what the new technology would bring. Many beliefs came to make up what historian Joseph Corn called the “winged gospel.” One part of the winged gospel included a vision of a future in which the airplane would be as common a form of transportation as the automobile. There would be, as some put it, “an airplane in every garage.” Another part of the winged gospel included the hope that participation in aviation would allow women and African Americans to gain greater equality in American society. Aviation never completely fulfilled that promise. In fact, many areas of aviation activity, including military flying and commercial airlines, barred women and African Americans for much of the twentieth century. However, both women and African Americans found their first opportunities to participate in flight in general aviation. What is now known as general aviation really did not emerge fully until after the mid-1920s. Nonetheless, even before then a number of individuals began to experiment with uses of flight technology that would later become important parts of general aviation. For example, the first uses of airplanes for crop treatment, aerial surveying, and corporate flying all dated before the mid-1920s. Also, the first production and purchases of aircraft for private uses also happened very early in the history of flight. Wealthy individuals and some early exhibition pilots purchased aircraft from such pioneer aircraft manufacturers as the Wright brothers and their chief rival, Glenn Curtiss. Just before World War I, Clyde Cessna, a self-taught exhibition pilot, briefly operated his first aircraft company, one he founded with the purpose of building and selling small, relatively inexpensive aircraft for personnel use. Cessna and those who followed him in the 1920s and early 1930s faced a number of difficulties as they tried repeatedly to build the type of aircraft that would allow for the realization of the dreams of the winged gospel. One of the biggest obstacles to the goal of “an airplane in every garage?was the aircraft engine. Through the 1920s and into the 1930s engines remained often the most expensive parts of the aircraft. The relatively affordable engines available, such as the OX-5, were so large and heavy that they demanded the design of large aircraft. Smaller, lighter engines were both very expensive and hard to get as most of the best were produced in Europe, not the United States. The dream of affordable, personal aircraft would have to wait. General aviation received a tremendous boost in the late 1920s with the trans-Atlantic flight of Charles Lindbergh. His celebrated feat created a great deal of enthusiasm for flight of all kinds. In particular his flight encouraged many to continue to explore the varied uses of aviation technology. At the same time, though, as aviation grew as an activity, government regulations at both the state and federal levels worked to make access to flight a little more difficult. While the new programs did help give birth to the commercial airline industry, they also began to demand that pilots earn licenses and that aircraft receive certification. These measures undoubtedly helped make general aviation safer. At the same time though, the age of the backyard builder and self-taught pilot were numbered. Some government programs aimed at encouraging private flying. During the 1930s the Federal government initiated a number of programs supporters hoped would help spur general aviation. For example, Eugene Vidal, who headed the Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce, pushed for the creation of a government program to encourage the design and manufacture of a safe, affordable aircraft. He hoped to come up with an aircraft that could be sold for $700, about the same price as an automobile. While some new aircraft designs did come out of the program, overall it was a failure. Later in the 1930s, the newly established Civil Aeronautics Authority sponsored a pilot training program. Known as the Civilian Pilot Training Program, the idea was to increase the number of pilots in the United States. These pilots would not only be a “market?for general aviation aircraft, but the young men trained in the program could more quickly become military pilots in case of war. While this program also failed to live up to its early promises, it nonetheless increased the number of pilots in the United States. And these new pilots included both men and women, and both whites and African Americans. The late 1920s and the 1930s also witnessed the expansion of general aviation enterprises. Crop dusting, proved valuable in the South in fighting the boll weevil, soon spread throughout the United States and included the treatment of forested areas as well as the aerial seeding of rice fields. Business travel also greatly expanded. While many businessmen and women used the new commercial airliners, many also saw the value of being able to fly wherever they needed at the time most convenient to them. These business people helped ensure that the high-end of the general aviation aircraft manufacturing market became and remained healthy. And during this time period the first affordable small aircraft made their appearance. The first affordable small aircraft was the Aeronca C-2 introduced in 1929. It sold for under $2000 and was powered by a 36-horsepower engine built by Aeronca. Soon thereafter American engine manufacturers, beginning with Continental, began to finally produce small affordable aircraft engines. By the end of the 1930s Continental, Lycoming and Franklin were all producing durable, affordable engines for small aircraft. The horsepower produced by these engines increased from 40 to 90. Engines like these powered the most popular aircraft of the late 1930s, the Piper J-3 “Cub.” At the end of that decade, a new Cub sold for just under $1000. The coming of World War II proved both a challenge and an opportunity for general aviation. During World War II, as during World War I, most of the general aviation fleet was grounded. However, both general aviation pilots and manufacturers found ways to participate in the war effort. Pilots organized the Civil Air Patrol, an organization that eventually became an auxiliary of the Army Air Forces (and later the United State Air Force). Civil Air Patrol pilots performed a number of duties during the war. They flew coastal patrol missions looking for enemy submarines. Others flew over the nation's forests acting as fire spotters. And still others flew humanitarian missions such as emergency medical flights and dropping supplies to areas hit hard by blizzards, floods or other natural disasters. Their activities also helped keep a large number of general aviation airports open and active during the war. General aviation aircraft manufacturers provided a number of products for the war effort. First, they acted as sub-contractors, using their skilled work forces to produce aircraft components for the manufacturers of military aircraft. They also sold a number of aircraft to the Army that were used in the Aerial-Observation-Post program in which Army pilots flew small aircraft in order to spot targets for Army artillery. And a number of general aviation manufacturers modified their small aircraft so that they could serve as training gliders for the Army Air Forces combat glider program. In many ways World War II marked a high point in the history of general aviation, at least when it came to the manufacturing sector. Many hoped that the high level of activity would continue and even increase in the post-war period. Given the large number of individuals trained as pilots during the war, general aviation manufacturers hoped that the time when private aircraft would come into widespread use was finally at hand. Hopes were high. However, as events unfolded, World War II marked not the beginning but the end of any golden age for general aviation. In the decades after World War II certain segments of general aviation continued to grow and develop. Business aviation, for example, continued as a very healthy part of the general aviation scene. It also witnessed important technological changes including the introduction of turbine engines, both jets and turbo props. These high-end business aircraft remained in demand. The late 1940s also saw the introduction of helicopters. While these aerial vehicles also failed to become common forms of personal transport, they did become very important in such activities as medical evacuation and law enforcement. The biggest advancements, though, came in avionics ?the radio and navigation equipment available to general aviation pilots. Today for a few hundred dollars a pilot, even in a small J-3 Cub, which normally has nothing more advanced that a compass, can pinpoint his or her location and easily fly a course to the nearest airport. In terms of personal flying, the type of flying most people think of first when they think of general aviation, the post-war period witnessed a number of difficult times. First, the post-war boom in private aircraft purchases never materialized. Many companies, including some that had been very successful in the 1920s and 1930s, were forced out of the aircraft business. The survivors, such as Piper, Cessna and Beech, had to work hard to rebuild the personal aircraft market in the 1950s through the 1970s. They did see some successes as each company made the transition from fabric-covered to all-metal aircraft. However, both the market for personal aircraft and the number of pilots in the United States peaked by 1980. In the last two decades of the twentieth century, the general aviation industry, particularly in terms of personal aircraft, struggled. The general aviation market suffered from a number of problems. First, lawsuits against aircraft manufacturers escalated in the 1970s and 1980s. The costs involved with these lawsuits, especially those associated with purchasing liability insurance, pushed up the price of personal aircraft. Given that most of the technology included in these aircraft (their airframe and engines) had not advanced much since the 1950s and 1960s, the new, much higher prices proved particularly difficult to justify to potential buyers. The new prices also put these production aircraft out of the reach of all but a few. Despite Congressional efforts to help with the liability problem, the general aviation manufacturing industry still awaits recovery. Further, the number of licensed pilots in the United States peaked in 1980. Despite efforts by a number of groups to address the decline, it continued throughout the 1990s and to the present. One bright spot, though, was the emergence of the homebuilt movement. Federal and state regulations in the late 1930s had all but made it impossible for individuals to build and fly (either from scratch or from kits) their own aircraft. In the early 1950s a group known as the Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA) formed to revive homebuilding. They were quite successful and though the factory production of aircraft has slowed considerably in the last twenty years, homebuilding has grown and thrived. The EAA also welcomes into its ranks individuals determined to keep the aircraft of the so-called golden age flying. By the 1980s and 1990s, hundreds of thousands of flight enthusiasts, both homebuilders and restorers, were making the annual pilgrimage to Oshkosh, Wisconsin, the home of the EAA, for the annual week-long convention. Much of the history of general aviation has been shaped by the dreams and beliefs of the winged gospel. Though those dreams and beliefs have never been realized, they remain. Despite a reality that sometimes seemed to make the goals of the winged gospel all but impossible, the enthusiasm with which Americans have embraced aviation technology (similar to many other technologies) has kept the dreams alive. It remains to be seen whether they can survive into another century. 原文网页: References and Suggestions for Further Reading:
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