如何学习《英语词汇学》

张维友 (华中师范大学外国语学院，湖北武汉，430079) ：本文重申了英语词汇学的性质；讨论了教材内容的安排及重难点问题； 阐述了如何处理好重点与一般,识记、领会与应用,读书与做练习,词汇学与语言学等四种关系；介绍和讲解了应考中注意的事项与方法，以帮助学员学好英语词汇 学，掌握教材传授的基本理论知识，取得好成绩。 ：课程性质；内容安排；重难点问题；四种关系；应考事项 中图分类号：G427文献标识码：A文章编号：1008-4851(2003)-03-0088-04 作者简介： 张维友，男，硕士学位，华中师范大学外国语学院院长，教授。 何谓词汇学？不少学生误以为，词汇学就是“学词汇”，把词汇学与市场上 编写的“突破词汇大关”的各种词汇手册联系起来。然而，真正开始学习，发现 完全是两回事，因此产生畏难情绪。有的学生说，他们把《英语词汇学》看过数 遍，书上讲的东西似乎都明白了，但参加考试，结果却不理想。凡此种种，实际 上集中于两个问题：一是词汇学属于什么性质的课程，它包括哪些内容？二是学 词汇学，怎样才能收到好效果？本文就这两个问题谈几点意见。 一、《英语词汇学》的性质 英语词汇学是一门有关英语词汇的学问，是普通高等院校英语专业普遍开设的专业知识课程。因为这门课程实用性强，对学好英语语言很重要，所以被列为 高等教育自学考试英语语言文学专业本科段选修课。 英语词汇学是专业理论课，它运用现代语言学的有关理论，研究英语语言中的词汇问题。该课程介绍“词”的基本知识，讨论词的形态结构及构成方式，探 讨词的意义及语义关系，阐述英语词汇的发展变化乃至相关的词典知识。学习本 课程的目的是对英语词汇具有比较系统、比较完整的知识，较深入地了解英语词 汇的现状及其历史演变过程，并能对现代英语词汇发展中出现的各种词汇现象做 出和解释，提高对英语词语的理解、阐释和综合运用的能力。由此可见，词 汇学绝对不是一般意义上的“学词汇”。 二、内容的安排及重难点 《英语词汇学》教程共十章，其涵盖的内容可以分为五大块：一、英语词汇的基本常识及其来源和发展；二、英语词汇的形态结构及构成方式；三、词的意 义、关系及变化；四、英语习语；五、英语词典。第一、二、三、四章主要讨论 英语词汇的形式；第五、六、七、八章集中探讨词的意义；第九章论述习语，即 “多成分”词语；第十章研究词典。各章尽管长短不同，繁简各异，但每章都有 一定数量的，只是多寡不一。至于哪些章节重要，哪些章节不重要很难确 定。应该说每个知识点都重要，知识点多的章节比知识点少的更重要。不过，就 其实用性而言，还是有区别的。英语词汇的构成方式、词的意义、语义关系、意 义与语境等章节相比之下更为实用，更能锻炼语言综合应用能力。 就其难易度而言，亦因人而异。有的章节难是因为涉及的专业术语多，定义多，难以识记，如第一章、第二章等；有的章节含有大量的例词，难记住，如第 三章、第八章、第九章等；还有的是概念较为复杂，领会起来较难，如第三章、 第五章等。因为考生各自的背景不同，知识面有别，阅读理解能力各异，所以某 些人认为难的章节，对另外一些人可能较容易，故不能一概而论。在学习过程中， 对自己感觉难的章节多下些工夫。有的术语概念，读一遍可能朦朦胧胧，读两遍 也许有所领悟，多读几遍其义会自然明白。 三、如何读书 《英语词汇学》是为英语自考者所编的教材，从语言的选用到内容和知识点的处理，都有助于学生自学。现在的自考学员大致分为三类。第一类是就读自学 助考班的学员，脱产学习，有教师教；第二类学生是上班族，边工作边学习，以 自学为主，考前参加一两次短期培训班；第三类是名副其实的自学者。不管是哪 一类学生，首先都必须要有苦干精神和拼劲。不认真，不刻苦是不会有好效果的。 当然，只一味地“死”读，不善于联想、思考，方法不得当，花了时间也未必会 取得好成绩。 第一类学生，时间充裕，而且有教师教，要善于利用这些有利的条件。上课前必须充分预习，把不懂的问题记下来，这样上课时，带着问题听讲，效果会更 好。第二类和第三类的学生，一般说工作阅历较为丰富，不少自学能力较强，不 利的因素是时间紧，任务重，因此要周密，巧妙安排。要发扬蚂蚁啃骨头的 精神，一章一节地细读，把不懂的问题和疑难点全部记下来，有机会找人请教， 或在短训班集中解决。 要想在学习中取得事半功倍的效果，一定要处理好下述几个关系： 1．重点和一般的关系。本文前面已经讲过，英语词汇学是一门理论知识课，每 个知识点应该说都重要，所以重点和一般本来就难以界定。从掌握知识来说，不 要去分重点和一般，对每章每节都要以搞懂弄通为原则。特别要防止为考试去猜 题、押题。考试的试卷是从题库中临时抽取拼合而成的，每个知识点都可能成为 考点，同样的知识点可能以不同的形式进入试卷，所以，一味地抓重点，猜考题， 可能会抓瞎。只有把书上讲的理论知识全部搞明白，才能触会贯通，以不变应万 变，临阵不慌。就考试的题型而言（后面还要谈到），简单应用题和综合应用题 主要集中在实用性较强的那些章节，所以在这些方面多下些工夫，多思考是有益 处的。 苦干加巧干，定会收到事半功倍之效2．识记、领会和应用的关系。《英语 词汇学考纲》上对学习提出了能力层次要求，包括识记、领会和运用。识记是最 低层次，即对有关概念、定义、知识点和主要的例词要记住。但是，“识记”不 是“死记”，不是说要把书上的定义逐字背下来，而是把那些概念意义记住，这 样在运用的时候，可以变换方式表述，只要能说清楚就行。领会就是要理解，搞 清楚书中阐述的基本理论知识的精神实质，它们与其它相关理论知识的关系和异 同。运用就是能利用书中所学的理论知识和方式方法去分析、阐释英语词汇的种 种现象，并能用自己的语言对其进行重构、改造和正确表述。三个能力层次虽要 求不同，却紧密相关。识记是基础，记不住的东西谈不上领会，更无从运用。相 反，领会了的东西容易记，而且不易忘记。只有领会了的东西，才可能转化为活 的知识，才能达到运用。比如有这样一道简单应用题：If a word is a hyponym in one semantic field, can it also be a superordinate in another semantic field? Use an example to illustrate your point 该题涉及三个术语和概念，即hyponym，semantic field，superordinate；它们之间的关系是：semantic field（语义场）由两个以上的 hyponym（下义词）构成，能概括或支配semantic field中各个hyponym的词叫superordinate（上义词），它们的关系是上下义关系。上义词和下义词是相对而言的，它们的身份是可以转 化的。如horse（马） 在 sheep（羊）, cow（牛）, horse（马），dog（狗）等组成的animal（动物） 语义场中是下义词, 但在mustang（小野马）, mare（母马）, mule（骡）, stallion（牡马）等构成的语义场中变成了上义词。要做好这道题， 首先必须识记hyponym，semantic field，superordinate三个术语及其定义，进而领会它们之间的关系与区别，然后才有可能举例阐述出来。所以说三个能力层次 依次递进，且相互联系。记忆是基础，但决不能仅满足于记忆。对每一个知识点 一定要领会，按书中提供的方法对语言现象进行分析，做到学以致用。 3．读书与做练习的关系。每章节后都配有思考题和练习，并附有答案，以便复 习和巩固所学的内容。为了帮助自学人员学习，全国高等自学考试委员会还组织 由笔者主持编写了《英语词汇学辅导》，2000年由外语教学与研究出版社出版。 《辅导》以汉语形式把教材译写出来，每章补充了练习，并给思考题提供了参考 答案。此外，社会上也出现了一些所谓的“配套”读本。这里要提醒大家的是， 读书指的是学教材，语言基础差一点的同学可以把《辅导》结合起来看。对教材 一定要反复读，读懂弄清楚。对每章所配的练习要认真独立地去做，只有在做完 后再查看参考答案，因为做练习最能检测学习结果。思考题是供学习思考的，提 供的参考答案只是答案的一种表达形式，绝对不能逐字逐词地去死背。尤其要注 意的是千万不要本末倒置，把大量的精力放在能弄到手的各种参考书上，更不要 去搞题海战术，走入歧途。4．词汇学与语言学的关系。词汇学是语言学的一个分支，属于语言学的范畴。 英语词汇学所介绍和涉及的一些内容与语言学上的某些章节交叉和重叠。如自考 科目《现代语言学》上的第三章“形态学”（morphology）和第五章“语义学”（semantics）中的“词的意义”（lexical meaning）部分都是词汇学讨论的内容， 因此可以联系起来学习。应该说学了语言学有助于学习词汇学，反之亦然。 四、应考问题 自考是以自学的形式通过国家规定的相关考试，最后取得国家承认的学历 或学位。所以通过考试是自学人员的现实目标。把教材读懂搞清楚了不一定就能 考出最理想的成绩，还有一个应考的问题。只有熟悉考试的形式、内容和方式方 法才能取得最佳效果。 1．题型与能力层次。题型在《考纲》中有明确规定。《考纲》列了12种题型，但在全国英语词汇学题库设计时做了一定的改动。现在的全国英语词汇学的 试卷由七大题组成，每题一种题型。它们分别是：I 单项选择，II 教材内容填空， III 匹配题， IV 判断填空， V 术语解释， VI 简答题， VII 分析题。减去了《考纲》中的第二、七、十二题；把第三、八题统称为判断填空题。七种 题型与能力层次的对照如下： 能力层次与题型对照一览表 识记 领会 简单应用 综合应 用 单 内匹判单 匹判术简 分 项容配断项配断语答析 选填题 填选题 填解题 题 择 空 空 择 空 释 从该表可以看出，题型与能力层次非一一对等，同一题型可涉及不同能力层次， 如单项选择、匹配题、判断填空三种题型。 2．试卷设计与分值配置。按题库设计标准，根据各章节的内容和知识点，每份 试卷对各章都有一定的分值要求。其分值配置为：第一、二章占15%；第三、四章占20%；第五、六章占25%；第七、八章各占10%；第九章占15%；第十章占5%。分值的配置基本上能显示各章节的分量。前面已说过，每章都重要。这 一点从分值的分配可以看出。当然，这种分值配置只是理想化的设计，具体操作 上很难做到如此准确。一套试卷由7大题50小题组成。匹配题和判断题各10小题，每题1分；简答题3小题，每题4分；综合运用题2小题，每小题9分；其它每小题均为2分。 3．读书与做题。如前所述，要想学好词汇学，必须要有恒心和拼劲，下大气力 学习教材，无捷径可走。但要提高考试成绩还是有方法的。譬如匹配题和判断题， 如果不熟悉其形式和思路，尽管对考题所涉及的内容很熟悉，也不一定能做好题。 现以2002年上半年全国自学英语词汇学试卷其中的两题为例： Match the words in Column A with those in Column B according to ?rhetorical features of idioms; ?sense relations; ?assimilation degree; ? characteristics of the basic word stock; ?motivation (10%) ABreiteration ( )A high and low repetition ( )B pick and choose juxtaposition ( )C face to face perfect homonym( )DFailure is the mother of success personification( )E hiss „ Study the following words and expressions and identify ?types of context; ?types of word formation; ?types of sense relations and meaning change ?rhetorical features of idioms (10%) 1making a restatement of a new word or concept in familiar words() 2sitcom() 3the usual amenities such as a pub, a post office and a school() 4from cradle to grave() 5might and main() „„ 这两道题看似简单，做起来却不容易。两道题有一个共同的特点，即涉及到不同 章节的内容。前一题包括第九章、第六章、第一章、第五章的内容和知识。要做 好题，必须知道英语习语的各种修辞特色；六种语义关系；两种同化程度；基本 词汇的五大特征和四种理据。然后将两栏提供的语词进行比较，逐一分析，对号 入座。答案是reiteration (B), repetition (C), juxtaposition (A), perfect homonym (E), personification (D)。其实，真正与题目有关的只是习语的修辞特色和词义的理据， 其它都是干扰项。 比较而言，后一道题更难一些。该题要求考生根据所提供的例词和定义写出 它们各自属于哪一类中的何种名称。如例1是第一类中的definition（定义）, 例 2是第二类中的blending（拼缀法）, 例3是第三类中的hyponymy（上下义关系）, 例4是第四类中的synecdoche（提喻）, 例5是第四类中的alliteration（押头韵）， 如果熟悉这些题型，并能模拟做一做，在阅读中能根据题型的要求去思考问题，等等。 做到有的放矢，效果肯定会更佳。这就是所谓的“巧干”。 4．术语英汉对照表的利用。教材后附有术语英汉对照表，主要目的是为了帮助 阅读和理解。知道英语专业名称的汉语意思既可以加深记忆，也可以帮助理解。 还有一个更重要的用途，往往不被大家注意。术语英汉对照表基本上囊括了教材 中主要知识点。尤其是名词或名词词组，每一个都是一个知识点。学完教材后， 不妨把这些专业术语作为一种自测手段。如按照字母顺序逐一复习。对每一个术 语都想一想其概念、定义，试着用英语表述，并能回忆一两个例子（书中的例子）。 如果忘了，再翻书复习。假如能按这种要求把所有的名词术语记住，基本上可以 说把教材弄懂搞清楚了。 总而言之，英语词汇学是一门理论知识课程，涉及的内容丰富，知识点较多，学 起来有一定难度。但只要同学们有决心，有恒心，敢于下工夫，在苦干的同时， 加一些巧干，定能收到事半功倍的效果。 How to StudyEnglish Lexicology Zhang Weiyou (Central China Normal University Foreign Language Department, Hubei Wuhan430079) Abstract:This article explains the nature of English Lexicology, discusses the arrangement of the contents of the course and the question of important and difficult points, elaborates on the four relationships between significant and general study areas, between memorization, comprehension and application, between reading and doing exercises and between lexicology and linguistics, and highlights the points for attention in preparations for examinations in the hope of assisting students in Key words: nature; arrangement of the contents; question of important and difficult obtaining desired results in the shortest possible timepoints; Four relation; attention in preparations for examinations 本课程命题是以全国高等教育自学考试指导委员会制订的《英语词汇学自学考试大纲》和全国高 等教育自学考试指导委员会主编的《英语词汇学》教程为依据，旨在考核应试者是否能识记有关 的概念、定义、知识点，领会基本概念、基本方法和彼此之间的关系和区别，能运用本课程的基 本理论、基本知识和方法，分析解决学习和工作中的实际问题，并能用英语正确地表述出来。 本课程试题分为较易、中等、较难、难四个等级，每份试卷中，四个等级所占比重分别为20%，30%，30%，20%。 试题包括选择题与非选择题，分别占卷面总分的30%和70%。题型采用单项选择题、教程内 容填空题、匹配题、判断填空题、术语解释题、简答题和分析题。其中单项选择题占30%，教程内容填空题占10%，匹配题占10%、判断填空题占10%、术语解释题占10%、简答题占15%和分析题占15%。 本课程考试时间为150分钟。 题型举例如下： 英语词汇学 Time Limit: 150 min. I. Directions: Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement and put the letter in the bracket on your answer sheet. (30%) 1. The characteristics of the basic word stock include _________ . A.stability B.productivity C.national characters D.all the above II. Directions: Complete the following statements or paragraphs with proper expressions according to the course book on your answer sheet.(10%) 1.The relationship between sound and meaning is ________ or conventional. III. Directions: Match the words in Column A with the words in Column B. and mark your answers on your answer sheet.(10%) A B 1.extension A.deer 2.narrowing B.holiday 3.elevation C.villain 4. degradation D.minister IV. Directions: Study the following words and decide: (1) how words were formed (2) how words were changed in meaning . Put your answers in the bracket on your answer sheet. (10%) Example One: disobey (prefixation) Example Two: deer (narrowing) V. Directions: Define the following terms.(10%) 1.word 2.stem VI. Directions: Answer the following questions. Your answers should be clear and short. Write your answers on your answer sheet.(12%) 1. How do you distinguish English synonyms? VII. Directions: Comment on the following sentences according to the instructions in the brackets. Write your answers on your answer sheet.(18%) 1.Trees surround the water near our summer place. (Comment on the sentence using the theory of hyponymy and then improve the sentence.) 全国高等教育自学考试英语专业《英语词汇学》课程考试命题实施意见 一.命题指导思想 本课程命题是以全国高等教育自学考试指导委员会制订的的《英语词汇学自 学考试大纲》和全国高等教育自学考试指导委员会主编的《英语词汇学》教程为依据，旨指在考 核应试者是否能识记有关的概念、定义、知识点，领会基本概念、基本方法和彼此之间的关系和 区别，能运用本课程的基本理论、基本知识和方法，分析解决学习和工作中的实际问题，并能用 英语正确地表述出来。 二.命题工作步骤 1.第一阶段（2000年1月18日—20日），命题教师学习、研究和分析本课程考试大纲的内容，以及大纲中规定的试题题型，讨论制订课程考试说明，并进行试命题和命题 分工。 2.第二阶段（2000年1月21日-2月18日），命题教师分头按接受的命题任务（根据章 节分工）进行命题。命题量为10套。填写好的试题卡片于2月18日之前寄到上海教育考试院。 3.第三阶段（2000年2月22-24日），由命题组长与副组长组成四套试卷。每次统考所用的试卷 由自考办在其中随机抽取一套使用。 三.命题要求 1.命题教师应根据本门课程考试大纲和教材，按照命题任务所分配的题型和题量 进行命题。需要重点考察的内容，可以采用不同题型或从不同侧面提出问题，但不得出偏题、怪 题。试题可以只考一个考核点，也可综合考核不同语言技能的多个考核点。 2.试题编制的质量要求 所编制试题要做到：A：题义清楚，文字准确，内容完整，措辞严密；B：所给的条件科学、恰当；C：标点符号正确，无拼写错误；D：答案简明、准确、评分标准合理；E：每题编制一张试题卡片。 3.题型编制 (1)单项选择题 a 考点选自教程 b 以识记和领会为主 c. 备选答案之间应避免互相重复、互相包括、互相排斥等情况 (2)教程内容填空题 a 考点选自教程 b.以领会为主 c.杜绝一空多解的现象 (3)匹配题 a 考点选自教程 b.以领会和简单应用为主 c.等量匹配 (4)判断填空题 a 考点选自教程 b. 以领会和应用为主 c.杜绝一空多解的现象 (5)术语解释题 a 考点选自教程 b. 以简单应用为主 c. 选取简单易答的术语 (6)简答题 a 考点选自教程 b. 以简单应用为主 c.答题方向明确，避免出内容范围太广的试题 (7)分析题 a 考点选自教程 b. 以综合应用为主 c.答题方向明确，避免出内容范围太广的试题 四.注意事项 编制选择题型时必须做到：1）应有4个答案，且其中只能有一个正确答案；2）题干文字简练，表述清楚，题义明确，备选答案的共同用语应尽可能置于题干之中；3）备选答案在逻辑形式上应为题干所提问题的答案；各个备选答案之间应避免互为依据或相互包含；4）错误答案应具有一定的迷惑性，或者是平常学习时易于混淆的内容；5）正确答案的顺序应按随 机原则排列，备选答案的题序号以A、B、……示列。 五.组卷要求 1.试卷内容既要全面覆面，又要保证突出重点。 2.每一试题均应相互独立，对某一试题的解答不得给另一试题以任何提示。 3.每套试卷均应能明显区分应试者及格或不及格两大层次。 4.题型分值结构及预计答题时间 项目 分值 时间（分钟） (1)单项选择题 30分 （每小题2分） 20 (2)教程内容填空题10分 （每小题2分） 15 (3)匹配题 10分 （每小题1分） 15 (4)判断填空题 10分 （每小题1分） 20 (5)术语解释题 10分 （每小题2分） 20 (6)简答题 12分 （每小题4分） 30 (7)分析题 18分 （每小题9分） 30 5.认知领域能力层次要求的分数比例 识记 （A） 20% 领会 （B） 30% 简单应用 （C） 30% 综合应用 （D） 20% 6.课程中各章在试卷中的分数比例 第一、二章 15% 第三、四章 20% 第五、六章 25% 第七章 10% 第八章 10% 第九章 15% 第十章 5% 7.编制术语解释题、简答题和分析题时，请在题卡上注明预留空间：术语解释题三行， 简答题八行，分析题十二行。 8.题卡序号：A--I 表示第一套试卷的第一大项目，以后依此类推。 六.其他 上海市自考委受全国自考委委托，负责组织本门课程考试的命题工作，其有关事项均 按国家教委（92）第22号《高等教育自学考试命题工作规定》执行。 () 第一讲： 1.考试题形式分为： ?.选择题(30分)：完全是考书中的例子，理论与例子的结合,也就是 ‘Theory’和 ‘Example’ 的结合。 ?.填空（10分）：考特例,不是考简单的‘Examples?Theory’而是考‘ Exceptions’ . ?.（10分） 考试内容： ?.Types of meaning changes: 词意变化的种类 ?.Types of meaning : 词义的种类，如：概念意义，联想意义，情感意义等。 ?.Languages branches :语系与语族, 语系如：印欧语系；语族如：一个大的语 系下分为那几个小的语族，如：日尔曼语族，斯堪的纳维亚语族等。 ?. Feathers of idioms: 习语的特点 ?.(10分) 考试内容： ?.Types of Bound Morphemes: 粘着词素的种类 ?.Types of Word Formations: 构词法的种类 ?.Types of Meaning: 词义的种类 ?.Types of Meaning of Idioms:习语涵义的种类 ?. 名词解释 (10分)： ?. 简答题 (12分)： ?.比较题：两种理论/概念之间的区别就叫比较题，比如说‘概念意义与联想意 义有何区别，粘着词素与派生词根有何区别，两种事物与两种理论之间的区别等。 ?.名词解释扩展题：难的名词解释派生的简答题， 如:Affected Meaning 名词 解释起来太长了，放在简答题里，就成为： What is Affected Meaning, briefly exemplify it. ?.Optional: 可考可不考的题，往往是给出名词让你举例子 ?.分析题(18分)：给出例子，让你用理论加以分析。 二. 串讲内容： Introduction 部分： Lexicology 这门课算哪一种学科的分支: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics. Lexicology和那些重要的学科建立了联系: 1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics 4) Etymology 5) Lexicography 研究lexicology 的两大方法: 1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学 2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学 e.g. wife 纵观历时语言学的方法论，woman 词义的变化算是词义变化的哪一种模式？ Woman 的词义的变化算Narrowing or specialization 第一章部分： What is word ? 词具有哪些特点？ 词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。 1) A word is a minimal free form of a language; 2) A sound unity or a given sound ; 3) a unit of meaning; 4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. 以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释 词的分类（classification of a word） 词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼写可以分为哪两类词？ 1) simple words 2) complex words 单音节词例子： e.g. Man and fine are simple 多音节词例子： e.g. Management, misfortune, blackmail management 可以次划分为manage 和 -ment misfortune 可以次划分为mis- 和 fortune blackmail 次划分为black 和 mail What is the relationship between sound and meaning? 1)There is ‘no logical relationship between the sound and actual thing. e.g. dog. cat 2)The relationship between them is conventional. 3) In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds. What is relationship between sound and form? 1)The written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oral form, such as English language. 2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English 3)With the development of the language, more and more differences occur between the two. What are the great changes that causes illogical relationship or irregularity between sound and form? 1) The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination. 2) Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart. 3) A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes. 4) Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary. 要记住以上四句话中的关键词： 1) influenced by Romans 2) Pronunciation changed 3) early scribes 4) borrowing 你能不能举出外来语对英语发音,拼写造成不一致的例子有哪些？ e.g. stimulus (L) ,fiesta (Sp) ,eureka (Gr), kimono (Jap) 外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是‘sound and form ’不一致。 What is vocabulary? Vocabulary refers to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. Vocabulary also refers to all the words of a given dialect, given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. Classification of Words (本课的一个重点, 年年考试都考) What is the classification of words? How to classify words in linguistics? Three criteria : 1) By use of frequency 2) By notion 3) By origin By use of frequency 可划分为： 1) The basic word stock 2) Nonbasic word vocabulary By notion 可划分为： 1) Content word 2) Functional word Content words are also known as notional words . (Content words 的别称) Functional words are also known as empty words, or form words. ( Functional words 的别称) Functional words possesses a characteristic of basic word stock, i.e. stability According to Stuart Robertson ,et al (1957),* (年年考试必考) the nine functional words , namely ,and , be , have , it , of , the , to , will ,you What are the characteristics of basic word stock? 1) All national character 2) Stability 3) Productivity 4) Polysemy 5) Collocability 要把握住‘All national character’的词,就是和我们日常生活息息相关的，最普通的词 稳定性是基本词的一个很大特点，请你举例说明？ e.g. man, woman , fire, water … e.g. machine, video, telephone … e.g. bow, chariot , knight Stability is relative, not absolute. 根据词的use frequency 划分出的基本词之外，还有一类词叫作None basic vocabulary, 非基本词有几大特点？或者是几大分类？ 1) Terminology e.g. sonata, algebra 2) Jargon e.g. Bottom line ( Jargon ) 3) Slang e.g. smoky, bear ( Slang ) 4) Argot e.g. persuader 5) Dialectal words e.g. station ( AusE = ranch ) bluid ( ScotE= blood) 6) Archaisms e.g. wilt (will) 7) Neologisms e.g. email ( Neologisms ) beaver 是girl 的slang 表达方式，但是二者之间存在着Stylistic difference Which constitutes the larger number among English vocabulary, content words or functional words ? Answer : Content words What is native words? Answer : (1) By origin, English words can be classified into native words and borrowed words. (2) Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus know as Anglo-Saxon words. (3) Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number ,amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000, but they form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language 什么叫borrowed words? Answer: (1) words taken over from foreign languages are know as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms. (2) It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modern English vocabulary (3) The English language has vast debts .In any dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed. 什么叫Denizens? Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language. In other words they have come to conform to the English way of pronunciation and spelling, such as port from portus (L). ‘Denizens’的例子都要记：Port from portus (L), cup from cuppa (L), shift from skipta (ON), shirt from skyrta (ON), change from changier (F), pork from porc (F). 什么叫Translation-loans ? Translation-loans are words and expressions formed form the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language, such as ‘ long time no see from haojiumeijian (Ch) 什么叫Semantic-loans ? words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form ,But their meaning are borrowed , in other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language ,such as the word dream ,which originally meant ’joy’ and ‘music ’, and its modern meaning was borrowed later from the Norse. 第二章：The development of the English vocabulary The Indo-European Language Family It is assumed that the world has approximately 3,000(some put it 5,000)languages ,which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar . (重点：语系划分的标准） What is the criteria to divide language families ? The answer : 1. the basis of similarities in their basic word stock 2. grammar (重点)The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as(选择题内容：) Prussian, Lithuanian , Polish ,Czech, Bulgarian ,Slovenian and Russian. ‘Indo-European’ 两大分支： 1.Eastern set 2.Western set Eastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian and Albanian Western set : Celtic, Italic , Hellenic, Germanic. In the western Set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. Celtic ：Scottish, Irish, Welsh, Breton The five Romance languages, namely ,Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian , Roumanian all belong to the Italic. The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian ,Icelandic, Danish and Swedish ,which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch ,Flemish and English. With Vikings’ invasion, many Scandinavian words came into the English language. It is estimated that at least 900 words of Scandinavian origin have survived in modern English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modern German. 重点句: Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England 古英语最大的模糊性的概念来自于 (scripts ) 古英语正因为出现印刷术才打破了 ( early scripts) Sound and form 真正达到统一是在什么时期？ .Sound and form reached their concord in ( Modern English period ) 如果从词汇变化的角度而言，Modern English 又可以细划分为 early period , modern period. *现代英语早期阶段属于哪一种文化现象的发展时期 （重要的选择或填空内容） Early modern English appeared in the Renaissance Modern English period 有什么样的外来语的进入？ The Latin words swarmed into English in early modern English period 现代英语时期，英语词汇大量丰富还有另外一个原因是 (colonization) The richness of Modern English in vocabulary also arises from (Colonization ) The English language has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language ( 重要选择或填空内容) Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary Three main sources of new words : 1)The rapid development of modern science and technology 2)Social, economic and political changes; 3)The influence of other cultures and language 2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Development 1)creation 2) semantic change 3) borrowing 2)Semantic change （还包括外来词的Semantic loans ） Elevation, degradation, extension, narrowing, transfer 外来词可以被称作borrowed words , 因此又可以被称作 . 重点句：borrowed words are also known as loaned words . 恢复古英语的用词是美国英语的一大特色 Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant. This is especially true of American English. 英语从synthetic language 发展到present analytical language 是在英语的哪 一个阶段完成的？ 答案：Modern English period 文艺复兴时期，恰逢英语发展的哪个阶段? 答案：Early Modern English period 在英语发展过程 在哪个阶段出现三语鼎立的现象？ French, Latin, English in Middle English period easel, port, freight, 出现于英语发展的哪个阶段，属于哪一种外来词的引入？ 答案：Middle English , Dutch 在英语发展的某一个阶段，有一种语言进入英语，它一共带来了2500 个词汇，这 种语言是什么？ 答案：Dutch (前年考题) 据现代语言学家的统计，英语中目前所占本族词的数量有多少? 答案：50,000 to 60,000 他们的来源是(Anglo_Saxon tongue ) 第二次世界大战以后，大量外来词进入英语中，如：Mao jackets , black belt , kongfu, 这些词属于英语词汇发展的Present - day English Vocabulary 注意：第二章出大题的内容无非就是请简述印欧语系的发展与组成。 Old English 和 Middle English 最大的striking distinction 存在于哪一个方面? 答案：Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings. 文艺复兴时期，哪两种文化得到了复兴，这对英语词汇的丰富具有什么样的影响? 答案：Greek , Roman culture 某些希腊词被引入到了英语是在什么阶段? 答案：Modern English 十六世纪，有一种新工业出现对词汇的发展产生重要的影响，这是哪一种industry? 答案：Printing 这导致sound and form 出现concord , 出现standardization. 第三章复习: The smallest unit in the English language refers to (morphemes) The minimal free form in the English language refers to (word) In the plural form changing, some of the words will take internal vowel change , this internal vowel change is called (allomorphs) Deer 复数没有变,还是deer, sheep 复数没有变,还是sheep, 因此,这种变化被 称作(zero derivation) 名词解释: Morphemes : The minimal meaningful units in a language are known as morphemes. In other words, the morphemes is ’the smallest functioning unit in composition of words Allomorp hs : The alternative morphs are known as allomorphs, e.g. the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats in bags, matches It can be realized by the change of an internal vowel as in foot-feet, man-men, goose-geese or by zero morphs as in deer-deer, fish-fish 简答题： what are the types of morphemes ? ( 答简答题时,名词解释) 答案：Free morphemes and bound morphemes Free morphemes : 1) Free morphemes are independent of other morphemes and are considered to be free. 2) These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. 3) They are identical with root words, as each of them consists of a single free root words ,as each of them consists of a single free root . 4) free morphemes are free roots. bound morphemes: 1) Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound.. 2) They are bound to other morphemes to form words. 3) Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix affix 分为两类: inflectional and derivational affixes. Inflectional affixes : Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes. Derivational affixes: 1)derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create now words. 2) Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes. root : 1) a root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. 2) the root, whether free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word 3) a ’root is that part of a wordform that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed’ stem : 1) a stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a compound like handcuff. 2) It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in mouthful, underestimate. 3) Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. 问题：Stem 和 root 有一个最大的区别在哪里? ( 连着两年没有考过) 答案： a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. 问题：请加以区别下面两个词的特征: nation , dict 请加以理论的分析? Both nation and dict belong to roots, nation is free root, which can function alone in a sentence, Nation as a free root, has complete meaning, when both prefixes and suffixes attached to it are removed, nation as a free root, still remains Dict is a bound root, which can not function alone grammatically , dict carries the fundamental meaning of words, dict has to combine with the other morphemes to create new words , for example , dictionary , contradiction . 问题：分析下面一句话: He is much more cleverer than any other one in the village, too heads are better than one. 请从构词角度分析以上的例子, cleverer , better cleverer (-er : inflectional affixes ) better ( good , well 的特殊变化) It is allomorph of good and well. 第四章: 问题：在英语中,主要的构词法分为哪几种? 答案：有七种: 1) Affixation 2) Compounding 3) conversion 4) shortening 5) clipping 6) acronymy 7) blending 有三种最常用: affixation , compounding and conversion 问题：由专有名词变为普通名词是词义变化的哪一种? 答案：Extension 问题：由普通名词变为专有名词是词义变化的哪一种模式? 答案：Narrowing 问题：Affixation 又被称为什么? 它分为哪两类？ 答案：Affixation is also known as derivation Affixation falls into two subclasses : prefixation and suffixation 要点: 有哪些前缀属于什么样的类别: a-, non, ir : negative prefixes de- , dis- ( 既属于negative , 也属于reversative prefixes ) mal-, pseudo-, mis- : pejorative prefixes super , sur-, extra ： prefixes of degree or size anti-, contra-, counter-, pro- : prefixes of orientation and attitude trans-, fore- tele- : locative prefixes fore-, post- : prefixes of time and order bi-, uni-, semi- : number prefixes pan-, vice - : miscellaneous prefixes suffixation : 1. Noun suffixes 1) Denominal nouns 2) Deverbal nouns 3) De-adjective nouns: ity, -ness, 4) Noun and adjective suffixes 注意Compounding, acoronymy , blending , conversion , clipping 的名词解释. 要点: 复合词分为哪三类: 1)solid 2) hyphenated 3) open 简答题: what are the characteristics of compounds ? What are the difference between compounds and free phrases ? 答案： 1) phonetic features 2) Semantic features 3) Grammatical features 最常见的三种词性 : 1) Noun compound 2) Adjective compounds 3) verb compounds 问题：在名词性复合词中有哪几种有多产性, 哪两种不具有多产性? 在形容性复合词当中, 哪三类有多产性? 动词性复合词是靠哪两种方法复合在一起的? *名词解释:Conversion ( 重点，还没考过) Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. Functional shift = conversion Zero-derivation ( 选择或填空要点) Adjective to noun : (1) full conversion (2) partial conversion 问题：形容词转为动词分为哪两类？ 答案：由Adjective to verbs : (1) Transitive (2) Intransitive 简答题: 形容词变动词的三种类别( 没考过) 问题：请你举出由conjunction 变为noun 的一个例子? 答案： Ifs and buts blending are also called blends or portmanteau words ( 选择或填空要点) 问题：‘blending’ 分为哪四类合成词？ 1. head + tail 2. head + head 3. head + word 4. word + tail 问题: 绝大多数blending 都是什么词性? 答案：nouns The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns; very few are verbs and adjectives are even fewer. 问题：截短法clipping 分为哪四类？ 答案：There are four common types of clipping : 1) Front clipping 2) Back clipping 3) Front and back clipping 4) Phrase clipping 要注意clipping 的例子 有一个特殊变化：fridge ( refrigerator 截短之后在i, g 中间加一个d ) , 还有拼写发生变化，比如说：coke ( coca cola) 问题：什么是acronymy？ Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of neames of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms Acronymy 包含两类: 1) initialisms (不发音) e.g. BBC, VOA, TB 2) acronyms (形成新的发音) e.g. CORE, TEFL ` Words from proper names 有四大类: 1. Names of people e.g. bobby : Names of people 2. Names of places e.g. champagne, rugby 3. Names of books e.g. utopia 4. Tradenames e.g. cabal 问题：以下的词采用哪种构词法？ e.g. diagnosis ---?diagnose : (先有诊断的名词,后有了诊断的动词, 这种构词被称作) backformation bloomers (它的构词法满足哪一种词法): 属于Words from proper names 中的Names of people VJ-day :(这种构词法是由哪一种构成的)属于Initialisms 中的Acronyms Pop: (采用哪一种构词法构成的) : clipping Sitcom : blending FORTRAN : head + head Bath (名词) ----- bathe ( 动词) Bath 和 bathe 存在一种什么关系? ( Conversion ) 重点句：Conversion is also known as functional shift. 问题：Noun + v-ing, 这类词构成的词是什么词 ？ 答案：compounding 问题：Record-breaking , 它是属于复合法中的哪一种？ 答案：Adjectives compounds 问题：请说出Adjectives compounds 中多产性强的有几类？ 答案： 有三类 1) n + v-ing 2) n + a 3) n + v-ed 问题：up-bringing 是属于哪一类构词法构成的词？ 答案：noun compounds (adv + v-ing ) 问题：复合词与自由短语的最大的区别是什么? 答案：区别也就是复合词的特点: 1) Phonetic features 2) Semantic features 3) Grammatical features 问题：red meat, green horn,它们是复合词的哪一个特点构成的词? 答案 ：Semantic features (也就是从构词上推不出它的涵义） 问题：Compounding又被称作什么法？ 答案：composition 问题：由compounding 或composition 构成的词被称作什么？ 答案：compounds 问题：复合词分为几类？分别举例加以说明？ 答案：分为三类：solid, hyphenated, open solid : blackmail , blackmarket hyphenated: brother-in-law, open : green horn , green hand 问题：当形容词转为动词时分为几类：Adjectives to verbs 答案：有三类： 1) Both transitive and intransitive 2) Only transitive 3) Only intransitive 问题：由人的行为所造成的结果进行转类之后，转成了什么词性? 答案：verb to noun e.g. catch 问题：形容词可不可以转类，转成名词分为几个类别? 答案：分为两类： 1) full conversion e.g. black , white 2) partial conversion e.g. the rich , the poor 问题：名词再变成名词分为几类？分别举例说明？ 答案：1) Concrete 2) abstract e.g. host : （可加-ess 变成具体名词） friend : (加-ship 可变成抽象名词） 问题：(只作了解) A word is unity of sound and meaning ( true or false ) 答案：true ( 可从word 的四个特点看出） 问题：Most loaned words are borrowed from foreign languages without any change in sound and spelling. （true or false). 答案： true 外来词分为四类： 1) Denizens e.g. cup from cuppa , port form portus 2) Aliens e.g. garage , decor 3) Translation -loans e.g. long time no see 4) Semantic- loans. e.g. dream 判断对错题： 1．Conversion means transfer of a word from one class to anther . (true or false ) 答案：true 2． The relationship between a word symbol and its meaning is mostly arbitrary and conventional. (true or false ). 答案：true 3.a word used in different contexts may contrast with different antonyms .(true or false) 答案：true 4. an allomorph is any of the variant forms of morphemes. (true or false ) 答题： false 重点句：A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. E.g. fast （fast 在不同的语境中对应着不同的概念） 选择题： Chinese is our native language, but we can not say the Chinese is our ? . a)mother tongue b) first language c) mother language d) official language 答案：C）mother language ( 不存在的一种说法) 问题：以下的哪一个词 is not an expression used by American? A) tube B) bar C) Mailbox D) Congress 答案：tube ( 只有英国人把地铁叫tube , 美国人把它叫作subway, underground ) 问题：‘smog’它是‘smoke , fog’ 合在一起形成的词，它是采用了下面哪一 种构词法？ A) clipping B ) compounding C) blending D) backformation 答案： C ) blending 问题：以下的词哪些属于：A)simple word B) compound word C) derived word D) shortened form. e.g. goldmine (compound word ) bike ( shortened form ) process (derived word : cess 是一个不可分割的bound root，pro 它 是一个前缀) supermarket ( derived word ) language ( simple word ) driver ( derived word ) dorm ( shortened form, clipping ) modernize ( derivation ) blackboard ( compound ) bus ( shortened form ) (omnibus ) (可能会出现的题)What is the difference between content words and functional words, illustrate your point with examples ? ( 未考过) 注意：答题时先答名词解释，再加以例子说明。 (复习要考虑的题) What is the difference between denotative meaning and connotative meaning? (论述题) What are the fundamental features of the basic word stock of the English vocabulary? ( 未考过) 答题时先答名词解释basic word stock 再答五大特点并配以例子加以说明。 (关键答好第一个特点: ‘All national character ， 它又分为五个特点) 前四章复习的内容： 问题：Which of the following words is not formed through clipping? A) dorm B) Motel C) gent D) zoo 答案：Motel: (blending) 问题：Old English has vocabulary of about how many words ? 答案：50,000 to 60,000 问题：词素分为自由词素和粘着词素，自由词素又被称作自由词根，粘着词素 分为哪两类？ 答案：粘着词素分为：Bound root 和 affixes 选择题或填空： Besides French words, English also absorb as many as 2,500 words in the Middle English Period. (Dutch ) A word is a symbol that B . A ) is used by same community B) represents something else in the world C) both simple and complex in nature D) Show different ideas in different sounds The opposite of semantic elevation in meaning change is called degradation or pejoration. Pronouns and numerals enjoy nationwide use and stability, but has limited Productivity 问题：以下的这些词是粘着词素吗， 以下的这些词是什么样的构词法？ 1) heart and soul ( Adverbial in nature ) 2) father - male parent ( conceptual meaning ) 3) City-bred ( noun + v-ed ) 4) Lip-reading - lip read (backformation ) 5) headache (compound n + v ) 6) antecedent ( 下划线的这一部分是什么： bound morphemes ) 7) preview ( prefix : 前缀) 8) receive ( bound root ) 9) called ( inflectional affixes ) 英语词汇学考前串讲(二) 第五章：Word Meaning The meanings of‘Meaning’ 指的是哪三个层次的内容? 意义中的含义的三个层次的划分: What are the meanings of ‘Meaning’? 1) Reference (有reference 的词必然具有sense, 也必然具有Concept ) 2) Concept( 能够形成Concept 的词必然有reference ) 3) Sense (有sense 的词未必具有concept , 也未必具有reference) (Conjunction , prepositions, adverbs, 它们都是具有sense 的词,但是未必具有reference , 也未 必具有concept, 例如：if, but, probably : 它们有sense, 但没有concept ) What is the relationship between the reference and the thing outside the language?（等同于：What is relationship between sound and form ） 答: Arbitrary and conventional 名词解释: reference 名词Concept : 1. Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical . They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories. 2. Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind . 3. Concept is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and so on. 4. a concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world. 重点: sense 的名词解释： Sense : 1. ‘ sense’ denotes the relationships inside the language. ‘ The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’ 2. Since the sense of an expression is not a thing, it is often difficult to say what sort of identity it is. It is also an abstraction. *3. Every word that has meaning has sense (not every word has reference) 重点：What are the type of motivation？ 1) Onomatopoeic motivation 2) Morphological Motivation 3) Semantic Motivation 4) Etymological Motivation 填空: 1.some of the words when edited with prefixes and suffixes, it will become another new word, either new in meaning or new in sense, this motivation is called ( morphological motivation ) 2. Compounds are totally different in the meaning before it was carried out with different elements, so the meaning of a compound can not be deduced from component constituted this compound ,this motivation is called ( morphological motivation ) 3. pen in old English , refers to the feather, but with the development of technology, fountain was invented , but the name of this material was kept up to this day, people still used the pen to refer to writting tool, this motivation is called (etymological motivation) 4. Conceptual meaning also know as (denotative meaning ) 4.laconic answer (简短回答), laconic 的形成是属于哪一种理据 (etymological motivation) 问题: pingpong ball , cuckoo 是靠哪一种理据形成的新词? 答案: Onomatopoeic Motivation 问题:at the foot of mountain, the mouth of river, 此时采用了哪一种理据构成? 答案: Semantic movtivation 论述题: 1. What are the types of motivation? 2. What are the types of meaning? 按大的分支来分分为: (1)grammatical meaning (2)Lexical meaning 分析题:*’The dog is chasing a cat’, analyze the sentence based on grammatical meaning. Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning. (语法意义上分析没考过, 但从词汇意义上分析考过) 语法意义指一个词的词性, 句中充当的成份, 句子的时态,单复数形式等. 1)’Dog, cat’ are nouns, and ’chase’ is transitive verb. 2) The sentence is used in present continuous tense. 3) ’The dog, a cat’ are singular form. 问题:The pen is mightier than sword? 请 从语法意义的角度上分析这句话? Both ’pen and sword’ are nouns. ’mightier’ is an adjective, and ’than’ is preposition. The sentence is in simple present tense. 这是现在时中采用的哪一种语法结构? ’Mightier than’ is comparative degree. ’pen and sword’ are in singular form. ’The pen’ is subject, and ’sword’ functions as an object to preposition ’than’. ’mightier’ is predictive. 重点名词解释: Conceptual meaning: 1) Conceptual meaning (also known as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning. 2) Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communiation as the same word has the same conceptual meaing to all the speakers of the same language. *Associative meaning :(一定要把它的四种分支答上) 1) associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. 2)It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminated. 3)It is liable to the influence of such factors as culture , experience, religion, geographical region, class background,education, etc. 4)Associative meaning comprises four types : connotative, stylistic, affective, and collocative. 问题: Connotative meaning is not the same to everybody, every situation and every time, analyze the statement? 答案: e.g. A child is prejudiced against, often jeered at, beaten or scolded at home, then home to his is nothing but ’ a hell’, hence unfavourable connotatitions, 问题: 某些贬义词是不是任何时候都是贬义词？ 答案：e.g. A phrase like ’son of a bitch’ which normally has an associative meaning of crude vulgarity may convey the connotation of ’friendliness’ and ’intimacy’ used between two close friends when they meet after some prolonged period of time. 问题:Stylistic meaning 根据字典上的划分有几种划分?根据The Five Clocks 划分,有几种划 分? 答案:In some dictionaries, stylistic features are clearly marked as ’formal’, ’informal’, ’ literary’, ’archaic’, slang’. Martin Joos in his book The Five Clocks suggests five degrees of formality: ’frozen’, ’formal’, ’consultative’, ’casual’ and ’intimate’. 问题:在日常生活中,人们把文体只简单地划分为哪三类? 答案:1)formal 2)neutral 3) informal 注意:要把书中89页中例子[22][23]分析要记好. 在情感意义affective meaning, 考试往往要落脚在affective meaning 的两个分类:(年年 affective meaning 例子都考) (1) appreciative meaning (2) pejorative meaning Collocative meaning 中的例子要记好: pretty , handsome Green 搭配的例子记好: green on the job, green fruit , green with envy , green-eyed monster. 复习: 问题: Blackmail 从发音的角度被划分成什么词,从理据的角度被划分成什么词? 答案:Complex Morphological motivation 问题: 有 reference 的词必然具有sense and concept ( 正确) 有sense 的词一定具有reference.(错误) The word which have meaning does not have necessarily reference. 问题: ’Forget, forgot, forgetting , forgotten , forgets’这是从哪一个角度来界定这个词的分支? 答案: Grammatical meaning 问题: ‘frozen, ‘formal’ , ‘consultative’, ‘casual’ and ‘intimate’ 这五个词是总结了什么的划分， 是根据什么的划分? 答案: stylistic meaning , 是根据The Five Clocks written by Martin Joos. 问题:But in daily life , we always refer to (formal), (neutral) , (informal). 问题: ’Pretty boy, pretty woman , pretty garden, pretty garden , pretty car’，请解释这些词的意 义一样不一样？如果不一样请加以理论分析？ 答案:Collocative meaning, when pretty is used to modify different nouns both animate and inanimate , their collocative meaning are totally different. 问题：Table tennis can be replaced by pingpong ball and the name of the bird is also called cuckoo , which can also be reused to refer to the sound of the bird , so their two words are (onomatopoeically) motivated. 问题：’Unexpected, expectation, expecting’, these three words are (morphologically) motivated. 问题： ’Hopeless, jobless, dislike’, 这三个词是靠什么motivated. ( morphologically motivated) 问题：’East or west , home is best’ and ’there is no place like home’. 这两话是使用了什 么样的意义构成的？ 答案: Connotative meaning 第六章: Sense Relations and Semantic Field polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy and hyponymy.（五种关系的名词解释要记住） Two Approaches to Polysemy: 1) Diachronic approach 2) Sychronic approach Two Processes of Development 1) radiation (1) radiation is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (2) the meaning are independent of one another, but can all be traced back to the central meaning. e.g. face, neck 2) concatenation (1) meaning ‘ linking together’, is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until, in may cases ,there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning . (2) In plain terms the meaning reached by the first shift may be shifted a second time, and so on until in the end the original meaning is totally lost. e.g. treacle 注意： 这两种模式的名词解释照样要记（这两种模式只在填空，选择，出过题，还没有以 名词解释形式考过） 问题：In the linguistic study, what are the sense relations and what are the types of sense relations ? 答案: A word which is related to the other words is related to them in sense, so it is called sense semantic relations. types of sense relations : polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy and hyponymy.（五种关系 的名词解释要记住） 问题：Fruit 与 apples bananas, pineapples, lychees 是什么语义关系？ 答案：Hyponymy? 问题：Fruit 这一类里包含apples, bananas, pineapples, grapes 它们形成了一种什么样的理论？ 答案： Semantic field 问题：有的时候在英语中存在着一种语言不共容的现象，那就是反义词的不共容的现象， 那 么这种不能够相互溶合，这样的词在反义词当中被称作什么词。 比如说：dead , alive , 它们之间的反义关系是什么样的一种关系？ 答案：Contradictory terms 它们之间形成的语义关系被称作antonymy 问题：Contradictory terms 有一个最大的特点是什么？ 答案：Mutually exclusive and are non-gradable, They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like very to qualify them. 问题：反义词存在不存在一种包容现象？ 答案：表明two poles, two extremes，的反义词，它们之间存在一种包容现象，这种包容现象 被称作（Middle ground） e.g. huge / tiny（ 它们之间存在着big , small , quite big, quite small） e.g. young / old 这类反义词被称为(Contrary terms) 问题：fast 这个词, 它表示紧的概念时, 它 和loose 是一组反义词，表示快的概念 时，它 和slow 是一组反义词， 这样的 一种语义关系算什么样的语义关系？ 答案： polysemy 问题：分析deer , dear 这两个词是什么样的词？ 答案：Homophone 重点: homonyms 有哪三个类别的划分？ 1) perfect homonyms e.g. bank , bear 2) homographs e.g. bow, sow 3) homophones e.g dear, deer right, write, rite 重点：Origins of Homonyms 1) Change in sound and spelling 2) Borrowing 3) Shortening 问题：shortening 可以表现在哪些分支结构构成上? 1) Acronymy 2) Homonymy 3) Narrowing 4) Idioms 重点问题：Homonymy 和 Polysemy 的区别？ （ 未考过） 6.2.4 Rhetoric Features of Homonyms e.g. Long time no sea. ( puns ) humor, sarcasm or ridicule 重点：名词解释 Synonyms Types of Synonyms : 1) Absolute synonyms 2) Relative synonyms 重要简答题：Sources of Synonyms ( 四大来源， 配以例子说明就可以了) 1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions 重点：如何区分同义词？(Discrimination of Synonyms ) 1) Difference in denotation 2) Difference in connotation 3) Difference in application antonymy : 反义关系 要点:反义词的三种类别的划分: What are the different types of antonyms? 三种类别的名词解释都要记: 1) Contradictory terms exclusive 特例: they cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like very to qualifythem. e.g. single/ married (有可能放在分析里去论述) 2) contrary terms 关键词: two poles or extremes middle ground e.g. rich / poor (中间还可出现well-to-do) 3) Relative terms e.g. parent / child , predecessor/ successor 问题: What are the characteristics of antonyms? 1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition 特例:Many words, though having synonyms, do not find their semantic opposites, e.g. read, hit, house, book, power, magazine. Therefore, in a language, there are a great many more synonyms than antonyms. 2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. (这个特点只适用于polysemous ) e.g. fast , dull 3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. (这里讲的包容性是指一个反义词必然包 含着另外一个反义词的绝对的概念) e.g.man/ woman (man 除了指男性,还可以指整个人类, woman 算作人类的一 部分, 所以 woman 也算在man 的范畴内,因此,woman 被man 所包容) dog / bitch ( dog 除了指狗类通称,还可以指公狗, bitch是母狗, dog指狗类通称的时,bitch是狗 的一种,因此我们说bitch必然被dog所包容,所以,它们之间存在着Semantic inclusion) (语义上的包容性还没有考过) e.g. tall/short, old /young 4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intenisty, so each has its own corresponding opposite. (特例)Some words can have two different types of antonyms at the same time, one being the negative and the other opposite,(未考过, 重要的选择或填空内容) e.g. happy / unhappy/ sad ( happy/ unhappy 之间的反义关系是negative, happy/sad 之间的关系是opposite ) The use of Antonyms (通常用在习语当中) e.g. rain or sine high and low easy come, easy go 名词解释:Hyponymy (未考过,很重要的概念) Hyponymy : 1) hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. 2)That is to say, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. 3) These specific words are known as hyponyms. The general words are the superordinate terms and the more specific ones are subordinate terms. 注意:hyponyms 和 subordinate 都是指下义词. 比如说:考试给你hammer, saw, spanner这些词, 然后再给你tool这个词, 然后让你用语义关系的理论加以分析这组词? 分析: hammer, saw , spanner 都是specific word, 它们和tool 存在的关系是semantic inclusion , 所以tool 是一个superordinate , hammer, saw, spanner 属于subordinate 或者是hyponyms. (用上下义语义关系进行理论分析的题,也是一个考试的要点) hyponymy ( 它与语义场semantic field具有一定的联系) 注意: 上义词与下义词不是一成不变的, 也不是绝对的, 是一个相对的概念,不同的语义场就存在不同的上下义关系. 重点:Semantic Field (名词解释) (未考过) Semantic Field: 1)The massive word store a language like English can be conceived of as composed around a number of meaning areas, some large, and others smaller. Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory. 2) The German linguist Trier saw vocabulary as ‘an integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sense. Therefore, the ‘words of languages can be classified into semantically related sets or fields. 3) According to Trier’s vision of fields, the whole vocabulary can be divided up into fields. 4)Words in each field are semantically related and define one another. 注意:答语义场的简答题与它的名词解释相同. 复习第六章: 问题:在反义关系中, 同一个词具有不同的涵义, 因此也就具有了多个不同的反义词 ( true or false ) 问题: true e.g. fast, dull 问题: 反义词分为哪三类: 1) Contradictory terms 2) Contrary terms 3) Relative terms 问题:可以用形容词比较级, 可以用程度副词 加以修饰的反义词是属于哪一类? 答案: Contradictory terms 问题: 可以接纳一个Middle ground, 这样的词是属于哪一类反义词? 答案:contrary terms 问题: Husband and wife , man and woman 这都是表示性别的反义词,但是他们属于同一类反义词的划分, 对还是错? 答: 错 husband and wife : relative terms man and woman : contradictory terms 问题: empty 与 vacant 这两个词都表示空荡荡的感觉, empty表示的是修饰容积,容量, 没有填充物的空荡荡, 而vacant 表示的是一个not occupied, not taken 所以一般我们说没有放家具的房间叫做vacant apartment, 而人去楼空的房间叫empty room, 请从同义词的角度对这种用法加以分析? (书111 页) 答案: Differnece in application : Empty, vacant are synonyms, but their collocations are not the same. Empty implies that there is no one or nothing inside while vacant suggests that something or some place is not occupied. 问题: 反义词之间存在不存在包容性概念semantic inclusion, 请举例说明? 答案: e.g. man / woman , dog/ bitch tall/ short, old /young 问题:Face 具有不同的它有一个primary meaning也有很多的derived meanings ,那么,这种基本语义和派生语义体现在face的身上, 是用哪一种方法论研究得出来的结果? 答案: diachronic approach 像车轮式一样进行发展的语义属于哪一种模式? 举例说明? 答案: radiation e.g. face, neck 问题:harvest 它的意思是time of cutting, time of harvest, 现在是指yield of grain or food 是哪一种方法论得出的. 答案: diachronic approach 问题:huge/tiny, 这是一组反义词, 请从反义关系的角度来分析这是哪一种类型的反义词,并加以理论的解释? 答案:contrary terms Antonyms of this kind form part of a scale of values between two poles and can accommodate a middle ground belong neither to one pole nor to the other as shown below: huge/very big/big/quite big / medium-sized/ quite small/small/ tiny ( 这种分析题目易考) 看例子: desk, table, chair, cupboard , 这些词都算在什么范畴之内, 加以理论分析? 答案: 这些词都属于furnature, furnature 是superordinate, desk , table ... 是furniture 的subordinate words 或者称作hyponyms ,它们之间形成的relationship is called hyponymy. 第七章: Changes in Word Meaning 两个大的部分: 1. Types of Semantic changes (五种) (1)extension extension 又被称作generalization e.g ’manuscript’ original meaning ’ handwritting---now ’any author’s writing whether written by hand or typed with a type-writer "barn" original meaning ’ a place for stroing only barely’---now ’storeroom’ (2)narrowing narrowing 又被称作specialization e.g. "deer" animal---now just ’deer’ "corn" grain---now ’maize’only ’garage’ any safe place---’ a place for storing cars’ (3) degradation degradation 又被称作pejoration e.g. "boor" peasant---now a rude, ill-mannered person "churl"peasant or free man---uncultivated or mean person "hussy" housewife---a woman of low moral "villain" a person who worked in a villa---evil person or scoundrel (4) elevation elevation 又被称作 ameliration e.g. "nice" ignorance---foolish---now elevated to ’delight, pleasant’ "marshal" keeper of horses---now means ’high-ranking army officer’ "constable" keeper of horses---now means ’policeman’ (5) transfer e.g. paper ( p140) the lip of a wound ( associated transfer) purse for ’money’ (associated transfer ) clear-sounding ( transfer of sensations ) 2.Causes of Changes : 1)extra linguistic factors (1) historical reason a word is retained for a name thogh the meaning has changed because the referent has changed. e.g. " pen" feather in the past ---pen, ball-pens, fountains pens increased scientific knowledge and discovery are also important factors. (2) class reason elevation and degradation (3) Psychological reason The associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words Religious influence is another kind of psychological need. e.g. "copperhead" on p.143 2)linguistic factors The change of meaning may be caused by internal factors within the language system. Especially when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the meaning of the whole. The influx of borrowings has caused some words to change in meaning. The competition of native words eventually resulted in the semantic division. 语义扩大的三个特例:1)polysemic words of modern English 2)technical terms 3)from proper nouns to common words 问题:由普通变成专有名词算哪一类词类变化模式? 答案: Narrowing 问题: 词义缩小有几个特例? 答案:有三个特例 1) From common words to proper nouns e.g. city ---> the City pennisular --->the Pennisular profit --->the Profit 2) shortening 3) material nouns 问题: 以下的词的词义的变化由什么模式造成的: 1)lust 最早是指人的一种pleasure快乐,现在是指sexual pleasure, 这种词义变化属于哪一种模式? 答案: degradation. 2)Editorial article 缩写为editorial 这是属于哪一种词义变化的模式? 答案: Narrowing 3) the Pennisular : 专指利比利亚半岛,那么这个词的形成是属于哪一种模式? 答案:Narrowing , 因为它是由common words 变成了proper nouns , 4) Sandwitch , 最早是指三明治这个家族, 但是现在是指一切快餐类食品,这种词义的变化属于哪一种 答案：Extension 5)问题:多义词具有了不同的语义, 这种词义变化模式属于哪一类? 答案：Extension 6) 问题:liquor 最早是指所有液体的通称, 现在专门指alcoholic drinking , 这种词义的变化算哪一种模式? 答案：Narrowing or specialization 7) car 最早是指马拉的战车, 但是现在就是指小轿车,那么这种词义的变化算是哪一个原因 造成的? 答案：Extra linguistic factor中的historical reason 8) computer 最早是指人的手工劳动的计算,后来是指占地面积非常大的计算机,现在的计算机就是指micro computer ,那么computer 词义的变化算哪一个原因造成的? 答案： Extra linguistic fator 中的historical reason , 9) 这时的computer 指代的是哪一种模式?或者是说哪一种理据的构成? 答案：Etymological motivation 10)在南北战争时期, 南方的人一见到北方的人就胆战心惊,所以把北方的人比作rattle snake ,那么南方人的 这种用词,它是哪一种原因造成的? 答案：Extralinguistic factor中的psychological reason. 11) 问题:最早的纸是来自非洲的一种做纸的植物叫papyrus, 后来就用paper这个词指代所有的纸张,尽管造纸 的技术和原料变了, 但是paper 这个名词却被保留了下来, 这算词义变化的哪一种模式? 答案:transfer (书140页) 12) 问题: Extention 又被称作什么,哪一种词类的变化最能说明这个原因? 答案: generalization, from proper nouns to common nouns. 13) 问题:Narrowing 最能表现词义缩小的是哪一类? 答案: From common nouns to proper nouns 习题练习: 1)A concept is universal to all men regardless of____ A) culture B) race C) language D) all of the above 答案:D 2)问题: Mouth 在 the mouth of river这个习语 , 它采用了哪一种motivated ? 答案: semantically motivated 3)问题: Radiation and concatenation are different stages of development leading to polysemy , generally , radiation 和concatenation 哪一个出现的早? 答案: radiation proceeds concatenation 4)问题:Of the most words meaning changes , which are most productive , which are most common? 答案:Extension and narrowing 5) 问题: wife 由最早是指所有的woman 变为了married woman , 这是属于哪一种? 答案：Narrowing 6) 问题: Angel 由最早的messenger 变成了messenger by god , 是哪一个词义变化模式? 答案: Elvervation 7) 问题: silly 它现在的词义是foolish, 它是哪一种语义的变化模式? 答案: Degradation 8)问题: cukoo, 它既指布谷鸟的声音,也可以指布谷鸟, 它是哪种理据构成的词? 答案: Onomatopoeic Motivation 9)问题: Italian , 它是哪一个语系分支当中的哪一个语族? 答案: Indo-European language family Western set Italic 10)问题: Greek 属于哪一个语系当中的哪一个小的语系当中的哪一个语族? 答案: Indo-European language family Western set Hellenic 11)问题: fair and square, 这属于Idioms中的哪一个类别? 答案： Phonetic manipulation 中的 Rhyme 问题：What are the characteristics of antonyms? 答案：有四个： 1) Semantic opposition 2) A word which ahs more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. 3) Semantic inclusion 4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite. 问题： "The chicken is ready to eat", 请你从语境的角度来分析？ 答案：This is wrong sentence, because it has two problems : 1)Ambiguity 2)Indication of reference According to two functions of Context 1) Elimination of ambiguity 2) Indication of Reference This sentence can be corrected as follows : 1)what a nice smell, the chicken is ready to eat. 2) The chicken is hungery, so the chicken needs foods. 选择题： A concept has referring expressions ____. A) one B) many C)a few D) none of the above. 答案：B The grammatical meanings of a word refer to the part of the meaning of a word which indicate grammatical concept or relationship, such as ____ . A) part of speech of a word B)Singular and plural forms C) tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms D) All of the above. 答案： D) 问题：pick and choose , 它算习语中的哪一个类别？ 答案：reiteration （同义词叠用） 问题：rain or shine ， 它算习语中的哪一类 答案：Juxtaposition (反义词叠用) kith and kin alliteration might and main alliteration cooked 这是哪一种, 请从词缀的角度来加以区别cooked inflectional affixation employer derivational affixes 名词解释：connotative meaning : is also known as connnotation What are the differences between hymonyms and polysemyms ? face 是多义词 , ball 不是 论述题： I met a write rwho is the relation of a politician. I met a newspaper reporter who is the brother of Senator Buckley. 以上这两句话哪一话好，好在哪里？(p119) 注意：答这个论述题时先说哪句好，然后加以分析，最后要答上下义关系hyponymy 的名词 解释。 Chapter 8 meaning and Context 要记两个重要部分: 1 Context 如何进行分类 两种: 1) Linguistic context In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. This is known as linguistic context which may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book. 2) Extra-linguistic context or non-linguistic context IN a broad sense, it includes the physical situation as well. This is called extra-linguistic or non-linguistic context, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. Context 这两个分类也就是它的名词解释 1)Linguistic context Linguistic context can be subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context Lexical context refers to the words that occur together with the word in question. The meaning of the word is offten affected and defined by the neighbouring words. Grammatical context In some cases, the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. This is what we call grammatical context. 重点:简答题: What is linguistic context?(这道简答题没考过, 但是整个context 考过) 重点:The role of Context 语境的作用? 三个作用: 1) Elimination of Ambiguity Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy 2) Indication of Referents Without clear context, the reference can be very confusing. 3) Provision of Clues for Inferring Wordmeaning 在3) 中又包括八种线索: (1) Definition (2) Explanation (3) Example (4) Synonymy (5) Antonymy (6) Hyponymy (7) Relevant details (8) Word structure 第九章: English Idioms 这一章关键是要记习语，这些习语都要记。 名词解释: Idioms (重点) (1)Idioms consist of set phrases and short sentences which are peculiar to the language in question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas. (2)Strickly speaking, idioms are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of indiviudal elements. (3)In forms idioms may include colloquialisms, catchphrases, slang expressions. 9.1 Character5istics of Idioms 9.1.1 semantic unity (重点) 1) idioms each consist of more than one word. 2) in the idiom words have lost their individual identity. 3) quite often the idiom functions as one word. e.g. " till the cows come home" , means ’ forever as an adverb. 9.1.2 Structural stability ( 重点) 1) the structure of an idiom is to a large exten unchangeable. first , the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced. e.g. " in a brown study" ( deep in thought ) " lip service" ( support only in words, not in fact ) " kick the bucket " ( die) " bury the hatcher" ( come to friendly or peaceful terms) 2) Secondly, the word order cannot be inverted or changed. e.g. twos and threes; tit for tat; the lion’s share 3) Thirdly, the constituents of an idioms cannot be deleted or added to , not even an article. e.g. out of the question means ’ impossible’ in question ( being considered) 4) Finally , many idioms are grammatical unanalysable, e.g. diamond cut diamond ( two parties are equally matched ) like cures like (as) sure as eggs ( quite certainly ) stepped up ( improve or enhance) in the raw ( naked ) turnn over a new leaf ( begin a new life ) draw the curtain ( end or concel ) 9.2 Classification of Idioms The difficulty in using idioms lies first in the difficulty of grasping the elusive and figurative meaning, of determining the syntactic functions of idioms e.g. heart and soul ( adverbial ) Idioms may be classified into five groups: 1) Idioms Nominal in Nature 2) Idioms Adjectival in Nature 3) Idioms Verbal in Nature（五类中最重要的） 注意：考试的一个要点在这， 动词性习语有哪两类划分？ (1) phrasal verbs : 短语动词 (2) verbal phrases : 动词短语 4) Idioms Adverbial in Nature e.g. "in clover ’ or " in the clover " ( in rich comfort or having a pleasant or easy life 0 5) Sentence Idioms 9.3 Use of Idioms The rhetoric characteristics of idioms such as : stylistic features, rhetoric features and their occasional variations. 9.3.1 Stylistic Feature; Such expressions were all colloquial and informal and once confined to a limited group of people engaged in the same trade or activity. But they proved terse, vivid, forcible and stimulating so that later they broke out of their bounds and gradualy gained wide acceptance.As a result, their early stylistic features faded in part and many became part of the common core of the language and are now used in different situations. 9.3.2 Rhetorical Features ( examples are very important ) 1) phonetic manipulation (1) Alliteration (2) Rhyme 2) Lexical manipuation (1) Reiteration ( duplication of synonyms ) e.g. hustle and bustle cut and carve odds and ends (2) Repetition e.g. word for word year in year out (3) Juxtaposition ( of antonyms ) e.g. up and down hit or miss rain and shine 3. Figures of speech (1) Simile e.g. as dead as a doornail sleep like a log (2) Metaphor Animals are used to refer to people, e.g. grey mare snake in the grass Inanimate things to refer to people e.g. a new broom flat tire the salt of the earth Things to refer to something else, e.g. bed of dust a wet blanket black bottle Actions, state to refer to abstract ideas or other actions, state, etc. e.g. sit on the fence cut the ground from under sb. fall from grace (3) Metonymy : idioms in which the name of one thing is used for that of another associated with it. (4) Synecdoche: substituting part for the whole e.g. fall into good hands earn one’s bread (5) Personification e.g. The pot calls the cattle back (6) Euphemism 9.3.3 Variations of Idioms 1) Replacement 2) Addition or deletion 3) Position-shifting 4) Shortening 5) Dismembering 问题：classification of idioms可分为哪几类？ 答案：Idioms may be classified into five groups : 1) Idioms Nominal in Natural 2) Idioms Adjectival in Nature 3) Idioms Verbal in Nature 4) Idioms Adverbial in Nature 5) Sentence Idioms 问题：Sentence idioms 如何分类: ( 选择或填空还未考过) 答案： They embrace declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamative sentences. In terms of complexity Sentence Idioms can be further divided into simple, compound and complex sentences. 注意：习语中的特例有可能是填空内容: (Exception1) This class contains numerous prepositional phrases, which in nature are either adjectival or adverbial and in many cases have both functions at the same time. (Exception2 )Sentence Idioms are mainly proverbs and sayings, including colloquialisms and catchphrases, including colloquialisms and catchphrases. (Exception3)In terms of complexity Sentence Idioms can be further divided into simple, compound and complex sentences. (Exception4） forms and functions of idioms are not necessarily identical. 问题：What are the rhetorical features of idioms? 答案：1)Phonetic manipulation (1) Alliteration (2) Rhyme 2) Lexical manipulation (1) Reiteration (2) Repetition (3) Juxtaposition 问题：Figures of speech ( 大的修饰格6个, 小的修饰格4个) 答案： 1) Simile 2) Metaphor 3) Metonymy 4) Synecdoche 5) Personification 6) Euphemism (1) humourous (2) ironic and sardonic in tones (3) derogatory (4) hyperbole 重点简答题: Metonymy 和Synecdoche , 这两种修饰有何区别? ( 未考过) 答案：Both metonymy and synecdoche involve substitution of names, yet they differ in that the former is a case of using the name of one thing for another closely associated with it and the latter is that of substituting part for the whole and vice versa. 习语的分析：(挑出习语加以分析，它是哪一个类型, 然后加以解释) e.g. He goes to the service , rain or shine. 答：In this sentence, rain or shine, is an idiom. rain or shine is composed in Juxtaposition. It is Idiom adverbial in nature 改写后：He goes to the service, no matter what the weather looks like , no matter what and no matter what kind of difficulties. 第十章 English Dictionaries 词典这一部分在填空或选择时出现的可能是最大的 1) 词典的种类 2)每一种词典的特殊性也是考试的要点： 比如：CCELD它的最大特殊性是它的extra column 3) 每一种词典的vocabulary stock 也是考试的要点：