外文翻译--在高速潮湿机械加工条件下后刀面表层磨损机理

外文翻译--在高速潮湿机械加工条件下后刀面层磨损机理 1 CHAPTER V TOOL WEAR MECHANISMS ON THE FLANK SURFACE OF CUTTING INSERTS FOR HIGH SPEED WET MACHINING 5.1 Introduction Almost every type of machining such as turning, milling, drilling, grinding..., uses a cutting fluid to assist in the cost effective production of parts as set up standard required by the producer [1]. Using coolant with some cutting tools material causes severe failure due to the lack of their resistance to thermal shock (like ALO 23 ceramics), used to turn steel. Other cutting tools materials like cubic boron nitride (CBN) can be used without coolant, due to the type of their function. The aim of using CBN is to raise the temperature of the workpice to high so it locally softens and can be easily machined. The reasons behind using cutting fluids can be summarized as follows. ? Extending the cutting tool life achieved by reducing heat generated and as a result less wear rate is achieved. It will also eliminate the heat from the shear zone and the formed chips. ? Cooling the work piece of high quality material under operation plays an important role since thermal distortion of the surface and subsurface damage is a result of excessive heat that must be eliminated or largely reduced to produce a high quality product. Reducing cutting forces by its lubricating effect at the contact interface region and washing and cleaning the cutting region during machining from small chips. The two main reasons for using cutting fluids are cooling and lubrication. Cutting Fluid as a Coolant: The fluid characteristics and condition of use determine the coolant action of the cutting fluid, which improves the heat transfer at 1 2 the shear zone between the cutting edge, work piece, and cutting fluid. The properties of the coolant in this case must include a high heat capacity to carry away heat and good thermal conductivity to absorb the heat from the cutting region. The water-based coolant emulsion with its excellent high heat capacity is able to reduce tool wear [44]. Cutting Fluid as a Lubricant: The purpose is to reduce friction between the cutting edge, rake face and the work piece material or reducing the cutting forces (tangential component). As the friction drops the heat generated is dropped. As a result, the cutting tool wear rate is reduced and the surface finish is improved. Cutting Fluid Properties Free of perceivable odor Preserve clarity throughout life Kind and unirritated to skin and eyes. Corrosion protection to the machine parts and work piece. Cost effective in terms off tool life, safety, dilution ratio, and fluid life. [1] 5.1.1 Cutting Fluid Types There are two major categories of cutting fluids Neat Cutting Oils Neat cutting oils are poor in their coolant characteristics but have an excellent lubricity. They are applied by flooding the work area by a pump and re-circulated through a filter, tank and nozzles. This type is not diluted by water, and may contain lubricity and extreme-pressure 2 3 additives to enhance their cutting performance properties. The usage of this type has been declining for their poor cooling ability, causing fire risk, proven to cause health and safety risk to the operator [1]. ? Water Based or Water Soluble Cutting Fluids This group is subdivided into three categories: 1. Emulsion ` mineral soluble' white-milky color as a result of emulsion of oil in water. Contain from 40%-80% mineral oil and an emulsifying agent beside corrosion inhibitors, beside biocide to inhibit the bacteria growth. 2. Micro emulsion `semi-synthetic' invented in 1980's, has less oil concentration and/or higher emulsifier ratio 10%-40% oil. Due to the high levels of emulsifier the oil droplet size in the fluid are smaller which make the fluid more translucent and easy to see the work piece during operation. Other important benefit is in its ability to emulsify any leakage of oil from the machine parts in the cutting fluid, a corrosion inhibitors, and bacteria control. 3. Mineral oil free `synthetic' is a mix of chemicals, water, bacteria control, corrosion inhibitors, and dyes. Does not contain any mineral oils, and provides good visibility .23 to the work piece. bare in mind that the lack of mineral oil in this type of cutting fluid needs to take more attention to machine parts lubrication since it should not leave an oily film on the machine parts, and might cause seals degradation due the lack of protection. 5.1.2 Cutting Fluid Selection Many factors influence the selection of cutting fluid; mainly work piece material, type of machining operation, machine tool parts, paints, and seals. Table 5-1 prepared at the machine tool industry research association [2] provides suggestions on the type of fluid to be 3 4 used. 5.1.3 Coolant Management To achieve a high level of cutting fluids performance and cost effectiveness, a coolant recycling system should be installed in the factory. This system will reduce the amount of new purchased coolant concentrate and coolant disposable, which will reduce manufacturing cost. It either done by the company itself or be rented out, depends on the budget and management policy of the company [1]. Table 5-1 Guide to the selection of cutting fluids for general workshop applications. Machining Workpiece material operation Free Medium- High Carbon Stainless machining Carbon and alloy and and low - steels steels heat carbon treated Grinding Clear type soluble oil, semi synthetic or chemical steels resistant grinding fluid Turning General purpose, soluble Extreme-pressure alloys oil, semi soluble oil, synthetic or synthetic fluid semi-synthetic or synthetic fluid Milling General Extreme- Extreme-pressure purpose, pressure soluble oil, soluble oil, soluble semi-synthetic or semi oil, semi- synthetic synthetic synthetic or fluid(neat cutting oils or synthetic synthetic may be Drilling Extreme- fluid fluid necessary) pressure soluble oil, semi- synthetic or Gear Extreme-pressure soluble Neat-cutting oils synthetic Shapping oil, preferable fluid semi-synthetic or synthetic 4 fluid 5 Hobbing Extreme-pressure soluble oil, Neat-cutti semi-synthetic or ng synthetic fluid (neat cutting oils may be oils Bratching Extreme-pressure soluble oil, semi-synthetic or preferable) preferable synthetic fluid (neat Tapping Extreme-pressure soluble oil, Neat-cutticutting oils may be preferable) semi-synthetic or ng synthetic fluid(neat cutting oils may be oils preferable necessary) Note: some entreis deliberately extend over two or more columns, indicating a wide range of possible applications. Other entries are confined to a specific class of work material. Adopted from Edward and Wright [2] 5.2 Wear Mechanisms Under Wet High Speed Machining It is a common belief that coolant usage in metal cutting reduces cutting temperature and extends tools life. However, this research showed that this is not necessarily true to be generalized over cutting inserts materials. Similar research was carried out on different cutting inserts materials and cutting conditions supporting our results. Gu et al [36] have recorded a difference in tool wear mechanisms between dry and wet cutting of C5 milling inserts. Tonshoff et al [44] also exhibited different wear mechanisms on ALO/TiC inserts 23 in machining ASTM 5115, when using coolants emulsions compared to dry cutting. In addition, Avila and Abrao [20] experienced difference in wear mechanisms activated at the flank side, when using different coolants in testing ALOlTiC tools 23 5 6 in machining AISI4340 steel. The wear mechanisms and the behavior of the cutting inserts studied in this research under wet high speed-machining (WHSM) condition is not fully understood. Therefore, it was the attempt of this research to focus on the contributions in coating development and coating techniques of newly developed materials in order to upgrade their performance at tough machining conditions. This valuable research provides insight into production timesavings and increase in profitability. Cost reductions are essential in the competitive global economy; thus protecting local markets and consisting in the search of new ones. 5.3 Experimental Observations on Wear Mechanisms of Un-Coated Cemented Carbide Cutting Inserts in High Speed Wet Machining In this section, the observed wear mechanisms are presented of uncoated cemented carbide tool (KC313) in machining ASTM 4140 steel under wet condition. The overall performance of cemented carbide under using emulsion coolant has been improved in terms of extending tool life and reducing machining cost. Different types of wear mechanisms were activated at flank side of cutting inserts as a result of using coolant emulsion during machining processes. This was due to the effect of coolant in reducing the average temperature of the cutting tool edge and shear zone during machining. As a result abrasive wear was reduced leading longer tool life. The materials of cutting tools behave differently to coolant because of their varied resistance to thermal shock. The following observations recorded the behavior of cemented carbide during high speed machining under wet cutting. F igure 5-1 shows the flank side of cutting inserts used at a cutting speed of 180m/min. The SEM images were recorded after 7 minutes of 6 7 machining. It shows micro-abrasion wear, which identified by the narrow grooves along the flank side in the direction of metal flow, supported with similar observations documented by Barnes and Pashby [41] in testing through-coolant-drilling inserts of aluminum/SiC metal matrix composite. Since the cutting edge is the weakest part of the cutting insert geometry, edge fracture started first due to the early non-smooth engagement between the tool and the work piece material. Also, this is due to stress concentrations that might lead to a cohesive failure on the transient filleted flank cutting wedge region [51, 52]. The same image of micro-adhesion wear can be seen at the side and tool indicated by the half cone 27 shape on the side of cutting tool. To investigate further, a zoom in view was taken at the flank side with a magnification of 1000 times and presented in Figure 5-2A. It shows clear micro-abrasion wear aligned in the direction of metal flow, where the cobalt binder was worn first in a higher wear rate than WC grains which protruded as big spherical droplets. Figure 5-2B provides a zoom-in view that was taken at another location for the same flank side. Thermal pitting revealed by black spots in different depths and micro-cracks, propagated in multi directions as a result of using coolant. Therefore, theii~ial pitting, micro-adhesion and low levels of micro-abrasion activated under wet cutting; while high levels of micro-abrasion wear is activated under dry cutting (as presented in the previous Chapter). Figure 5-3A was taken for a cutting insert machined at 150mlmin. It shows a typical micro-adhesion wear, where quantities of chip metal were adhered at the flank side temporarily. Kopac [53] exhibited similar finding when testing HSS-TiN drill inserts in drilling SAE1045 steel. This adhered metal would later be plucked away taking grains of WC and binder from cutting inserts material and the process continues. In order to explore other types of wear that might exist, a zoom-in view with magnification of 750 times was taken as shown in Figure5-3B. 7 8 Figure 5-3B show two forms of wears; firstly, micro-thermal cracks indicated by perpendicular cracks located at the right side of the picture, and supported with similar findings of Deamley and Trent [27]. Secondly, micro-abrasion wear at the left side of the image where the WC grains are to be plucked away after the cobalt binder was severely destroyed by micro-abrasion. Cobalt binders are small grains and WC is the big size grains. The severe distortion of the binder along with the WC grains might be due to the activation of micro-adhesion and micro-abrasion Figure 5-1 SEM image of (KC313) showing micro abrasion and micro-adhesion (wet). SEM micrographs of (KC313) at 180m/min showing micro-abrasion where cobalt binder was worn first leaving protruded WC spherical droplets (wet). 8 9 (a) SEM micrographs of (KC313) at 180m/min showing thermal pitting (wet). Figure 5-2 Magnified views of (KC313) under wet cutting: (a) SEM micrographs of (KC313) at 180mlmin showing micro-abrasion where cobalt binder was worn first leaving protruded WC spherical droplets (wet ), (b) SEM micrographs of (KC313) at 180.m/min showing thermal pitting (wet ). SEM image showing micro-adhesion wear mechanism under 150m/min (wet). 9 10 (a) SEM image showing micro-thermal cracks, and micro-abrasion. Figure 5-3 Magnified views of (KC313) at 150m/min (wet): (a) SEM image showing micro-adhesion wear mechanism under 150m/min (wet), (b) SEM image showing micro-fatigue cracks, and micro-abrasion (wet). Wear at the time of cutting conditions of speed and coolant introduction. Therefore, micro-fatigue, micro-abrasion, and micro-adhesion wear mechanisms are activated under wet condition, while high levels of micro-abrasion were observed under dry one. Next, Figure 5-4A was taken at the next lower speed (120m/min). It shows build up edge (BUE) that has sustained its existence throughout the life of the cutting tool, similar to Huang [13], Gu et al [36] and Venkatsh et al [55]. This BUE has protected the tool edge and extended its life. Under dry cutting BUE has appeared at lower speeds (90 and 60 m/min), but when introducing coolant BUE started to develop at higher speeds, This is due to the drop in shear zone temperature that affected the chip metal flow over the cutting tool edge, by reducing the ductility to a level higher than the one existing at dry condition cutting. As a result, chip metal starts accumulating easier at the interface between metal chip flow, cutting tool edge and crater surface to form a BUE. In addition to BUE formation, micro-abrasion 10 11 wear was activated at this speed indicated by narrow grooves. To explore the possibility of other wear mechanisms a zoom-in view with a magnification of 3500 times was taken and shown in Figure 5-4B. Micro- fatigue is evident by propagated cracks in the image similar to Deamley and Trent [27] finding. Furthermore, Figure 5-4B shows indications of micro-abrasion wear, revealed by the abrasion of cobalt binder and the remains of big protruded WC grains. However, the micro-abrasion appeared at this speed of 120m/min is less severe than the same type of micro-wear observed at 150 m/min speed, supported with Barnes [41] similar findings. Therefore, micro-abrasion, BUE and micro-fatigue were activated under wet condition while, adhesion, high levels micro-abrasion, and no BUE were under dry cutting. SEM image of (KC313) showing build up edge under 120m/min (wet). (a) SEM image of (KC3 13) showing micro-fatigue, and micro-abrasion (wet). Figure 5-4 SEM images of (KC313) at 120m/min (wet), (a) SEM image of (KC313). showing build up edge, (b) SEM image of (KC313) showing micro-fatigue and micro-abrasion 33 Figure 5-5 is for a cutting tool machined at 90m/min, that presents a 11 12 good capture of one stage of tool life after the BUE has been plucked away. The bottom part of the flank side shows massive metal adhesion from the work piece material. The upper part of the figure at the edge shows edge fracture. To stand over the reason of edge fracture, the zoom-in view with magnification of 2000 times is presented in Figure 5-6A. The micro-fatigue crack image can be seen as well as micro-attrition revealed by numerous holes, and supported with Lim et al [31] observations on HSS-TiN inserts. As a result of BUE fracture from the cutting tool edge, small quantities from the cutting tool material is plucked away leaving behind numerous holes. Figure 5-6B is another zoom-in view of the upper part of flank side with a magnification of 1000 times and shows micro-abrasion wear indicated by the narrow grooves. Furthermore, the exact type of micro-wear mechanism appeared at the flank side under 60 m/min. Therefore, in comparison with dry cutting at the cutting speed of 90 m/min and 60 m/min, less micro-abrasion, bigger BUE formation, and higher micro-attrition rate were activated. Figure 5-5 SEM image showing tool edge after buildup edge was plucked away. 12 13 SEM image showing micro-fatigue crack, and micro-attrition. (a) SEM image showing micro-abrasion. Figure 5-6 SEM images of (KC313) at 90m/min:(a) SEM image showing micro-fatigue crack, and micro-attrition, (b) SEM image showing micro-abrasion. 5.4 Experimental Observations on Wear Mechanisms of Coated Cemented Carbide with TiN-TiCN-TiN Coating in High Speed Wet Machining Investigating the wear mechanisms of sandwich coating under wet cutting is presented in this section starting from early stages of wear. Figure 5-7 shows early tool wear starting at the cutting edge when cutting at 410m/min. Edge fracture can be seen, it has started at 13 14 cutting edge due to non-smooth contact between tool, work piece, micro-abrasion and stress concentrations. To investigate further the other possible reasons behind edge fracture that leads to coating spalling, a zoom-in view with magnification of 2000 times was taken and presented at Figure 5-8A. Coating fracture can be seen where fragments of TiN (upper coating) had been plucked away by metal chips. This took place as result of micro-abrasion that led to coating spalling. On the other hand, the edge is the weakest part of the cutting insert geometry and works as a stress concentrator might lead to a cohesive failure on the transient filleted flank cutting wedge region [51, 52]. Both abrasion wear and stress concentration factor leave a non-uniform edge configuration at the micro scale after machining starts. Later small metal fragments started to adhere at the developed gaps to be later plucked away by the continuous chip movement as shown in Figure 5-8A. Another view of edge fracture was taken of the same cutting tool with a magnification of 2000 times as shown in Figure 5-8B. It presents fracture and crack at the honed tool edge. A schematic figure indicated by Figure 5-9, presented the progressive coated cutting inserts failure starting at the insert edge. It was also noticed during the inserts test that failure takes place first at the inserts edge then progressed toward the flank side. Consequently, a study on optimizing the cutting edge 14 15 Figure 5-7 SEM image of (KC732) at 410m/min showing edge fracture and micro-abrasion (wet). SEM image showing edge fracture. (a) SEM image showing fracture and crack at the honed insert edge. Figure 5-8 SEM of (KC732) at 410m/min and early wear stage (wet): (a) SEM image showing edge fracture, (b) SEM image showing fracture and crack at the honed insert edge. radius to improve coating adhesion, and its wear resistance, might 15 16 be also a topic for future work. Figure 5-1.0A was taken after tool failure at a speed of 410m/min. It shows completely exposed substrate and severe sliding wear at the flank side. The coating exists at the crater surface and faces less wear than the flank side. Therefore it works as an upper protector for the cutting edge and most of the wear will take place at the flank side as sliding wear. Figure 5-10B is a zoom-in view with magnification of 3500 times, and shows coating remaining at the flank side. Nonetheless, micro-abrasion and a slight tensile fracture in the direction of metal chip flow. Ezugwa et al [28] and Kato [32] have exhibited similar finding. However, the tensile fracture in this case is less in severity than what had been observed at dry cutting. This is due to the contribution of coolant in dropping the cutting temperature, which has reduced the plastic deformation at high temperature as a result. Hence, in comparison with the dry cutting at the same speed, tensile fracture was available with less severity and micro-abrasion/sliding. However, in dry cutting high levels of micro-abrasion, high levels of tensile fracture and sliding wear occurred. Figure 5-11 was taken at early stages of wear at a speed of 360m/min. It shows sliding wear, coating spalling and a crack starting to develop between TiN and TiCN coating at honed tool edge. Figure5-12A shows nice presentation of what had been described earlier regarding the development of small fragments on the tool edge. The adhered metal fragments work along with micro-abrasion wear to cause coating spalling. 16 17 SEM image showing sliding wear. (a) SEM image showing micro-abrasion and tensile fracture. Figure 5-10 SEM images of (KC732) at 410m/min after failure (wet): (a) SEM image showing sliding wear, (b) SEM image showing micro-abrasion and tensile fracture. 17 18 Figure 5-11 SEM image at early stage of wear of 360m/min (wet) showing coating and spalling developing crack between TiN and TiCN layers. The size of the metal chip adhered at the edge is almost 15g. Since it is unstable it will be later plucked away taking some fragments of coatings with it and the process continues. Another zoom in view with a magnification of 5000 times for the same insert is shown in Figure 5-12B indicating a newly developed crack between the coating layers. Figure 5-13A is taken of the same insert after failure when machining at 360m/min and wet condition. Coating spalling, and sliding wear can be seen and indicated by narrow grooves. In addition, initial development of notch wear can be seen at the maximum depth of cut. Further investigation is carried out by taking a zoom in view with a magnification of 2000 times as shown in Figure 5-13B. A clear micro-abrasion wear and micro-fatigue cracks were developed as shown, which extended deeply through out the entire three coating layers deep until the substrate. Therefore, in comparison with dry cutting, micro-fatigue crack, less tensile fracture, less micro-abrasion wear were activated at wet cutting. While micro- fatigue crack, high levels of 18 19 micro-abrasion, and high levels of tensile fracture are distinguish the type of wear under dry condition at the same cutting speed. Next, Figure 5-14A is taken for cutting tools machined at 310m/min. The results are similar to the previous inserts machined at 360m/min, where adhesion of metal fragments occurred at the tool edge, sliding wear and coating spalling. In addition, the black spot appeared at the top of the figure on the crater surface is a void resulting from imperfections in the coating process. At this condition, the crater surface will be worn faster than the flank surface. SEM image showing adhered metal fragments at tool edge. 19 20 (a) SEM image showing developed crack between coating layers. Figure 5-12 SEM image of (KC732) at early wear 360m/min (wet): (a) SEM image showing adhered metal fragments at tool edge, (b) SEM image showing developed crack between coating layers. 20 21 (a) SEM image showing coating spalling and sliding wear after tool failure (b) SEM image showing micro-abrasion, and micro-fatigue cracks developed between coating layers Figure 5-13 SEM image of KC732 after failure machined at 360m/min (b) (wet): (a) SEM image showing coating spalling and sliding wear after tool failure, (b) SEM image showing micro-abrasion, and micro-fatigue cracks developed between coating layers. 21 22 翻译 章节V 在高速潮湿机械加工条件下后刀面表层磨损机理 5.1 介绍 几乎每类型用机器制造譬如转动, 碾碎, 钻井, 研..., 使用切口流体协助零件的有效的生产当设定标准由生产商[ 1 ] 需要。 使用蓄冷剂以一些切割工具物质起因严厉失败由于缺乏他们的对热冲击的抵抗(如AL2.O3 陶瓷), 过去经常转动钢。 其它切割工具材料象立方体硼氮化物(CBN) 可能被使用没有蓄冷剂, 由于类型他们的作用。 使用CBN 的目标将提高工件 的温度对上流因此它变柔和和当地可能容易地用机器制造。 原因在使用切削液之后可能被总结如下。 . 延长切割工具寿命由减少达到热量引起和结果较少磨损率达到。 它从剪区域和被形成的芯片并且将散热。 . 冷却高质量材料工作片断在操作之下充当一个重要角色从表面的热量畸变并且表层下损伤是必须被消灭或主要使到产物一个高质量产品降低过热的结果。 . 减少切削力由它润滑的作用在联接口区域和清洁切削区在用机器制造从小芯片期间。 二个主要原因至于使用切口流体冷却和润滑。 切削液作为蓄冷剂: 用途的可变的特征和情况确定切口流体的蓄冷剂行动, 哪些改进热传递在剪区 , 并且切口流体。 蓄冷剂的物产必须在这种情况下包括域在先锋之间, 工作片断 高热容量使热和好导热性失去控制吸收热从切口区域。 水基的蓄冷剂乳化液以它的优秀高热容量能减少工具穿戴[ 44 ] 。 切削液作为润滑剂: 目的将减少摩擦在先锋之间, 倾斜面孔和工作片断材料或减少切口力量(正切组分) 。 当摩擦下降热引起下降。 结果, 切割工具穿戴率被减少并且表面结束被 22 23 改进。 切削液物产 免于可感知的气味 保存清晰在生活中 种类和 表层和孔。 腐蚀保护对机器零件和工作编结。 有效用术语工具生活, 安全, 稀释比率, 并且可变的生活。 [ 1 ] 5.1.1 切削液类型 切削液有二个主要类别 清洁的切削液 清洁的切削液是穷的在他们的蓄冷剂特征是很好的润滑液。 他们由充斥应用工作区域由泵浦和被重新传布通过过滤器, 坦克和喷管。 这型由水不稀释, 并且可以包含润滑和极压力添加剂提高他们的切口表现。 这型用法降低他们的冷却的能力, 避免火灾危险, 保证操作员健康与安全风险 [ 1 ] 。 . 水基于的或水溶切削液 这个小组被细分入三个类别: 1. 乳化液` 矿物可溶解' 白色乳状颜色由于油乳化液在水中。 包含从40%-80% 矿物油和一种乳化剂在腐蚀抗化剂旁边, 在生物杀伤剂旁边禁止细菌成长。 2. 微乳化液` 半合成' 发明了在80 年代之内, 有较少油含量和或更高的乳化剂比率10%-40% 油。 由于使流体更加透亮和容易看工作片断在操作期间的高水平乳化剂油小滴大小在流体更小。 其它重要好处是在它的能力乳化油任一漏出从机器零件在切口流体, 腐蚀抗化剂, 并且细菌控制。 3. 矿物油自由` 合成物质' 是化学制品的混合, 水, 细菌控制, 腐蚀抗化剂, 并且染料。 不包含任何矿物油, 并且提供好可见性 流动性需要采取对机器零件润滑的更多注意因为它不应该留下油膜在机器零件, 并且可能导致密封严 5.1.2 切削液选择 许多因素影响切削液的选择; 主要工作材料片段, 类型机器的操作, 机械工具零件, 油漆, 并且密封。 表5-1 准备在机械工具产业研究协会提供建议在类型流体被使用。 5.1.3 蓄冷剂管理 达到一个高水平切削液表现和成本实效, 蓄冷剂回收系统应该被安装在工厂。 这个系统将减少相当数量新被购买的蓄冷剂集中和蓄冷剂一次性, 哪些将减少制造费用。 它或者由公司做或被租赁, 取决于公司预算和管理方针。 表5-1 指南对于切口流体的选择为一般车间应用。 机器制造 制件材料 操作 自由用机器制媒介碳钢 高碳钢 防锈和热处造 理 并且低碳钢 抗性合金 磨削 清楚的型可溶解油, 半合成物质或化学制品研的流体 23 24 车削 一般用途, 可溶解油, 半 极压可溶解油, 综合性或综合性流体 半合成或合成性流体 铣削 一般目的,可溶极压可溶物 极压可溶解油, 解油,半合成物油,半合成物质半合成或综合性流体(清洁的 质 或 切削液可能是必要) 或合成物质流综合性流体 体 钻削 极压溶物油,半 合成物质或 综合性流体 插齿 整洁切口上油更好 极压溶解油, 半合成或综合性流体 滚齿 极压可溶解油, 半合成或合成性流体(整洁的切清洁的切削口油也许是更好的) 液 珩齿 极压可溶解油, 半合成或合成性流体( 清洁的切削液也许是更好的) 轻拍 清洁的切削极压可溶解油,半合成或合成性流体(切削液也许液更好 是必要的) 注: 一些词条故意地延伸二个或更多专栏, 表明可能大范围的应用。 其它词条被限制对工作材料具体组。 采用爱德华和怀特 5.2 机器磨损在湿高速用机器制造之下 这是共同的信仰, 蓄冷剂用法在金属切口减少切口温度和延长工具生活。 但是, 这研究表示, 这不一定是真实的被推断在切口插入物材料。 相似的研究被执行了对不同的切口插入物材料和切口情况支持我们的结果。 顾?等[ 36 ] 了在工具磨损机制上的一个区别在C5 干燥和湿切口碾碎的插入物之间。 Tonshoff(人名) 等[ 44 ] 并且陈列了不同的穿戴机制在AL2.O3/TiC 插入物在用机器制造ASTM 5115, 当使用蓄冷剂乳化液与干燥切口比较了。 另外, Avila 和Abrao [ 20 ] 体验了在穿戴机制上的区别被激活在侧面边, 当使用不同的蓄冷剂在测试AL2.O3lTiC 工具在用机器制造AISI4340 钢。磨损机制和切口插入物的行为被学习在这研究在湿上流速度用机器制造的(WHSM) 情况下不充分地被了解。 所以, 这是这研究尝试集中于贡献在涂层发展和最近被开发的材料涂层技术为了升级他们的表现在坚韧用机器制造的情况。 这可贵的研究提供在有利的洞察入生产省时和增量。在竞争全球性经济中成本的降低是根本的解决方法; 这样保护了地方市场和寻找新的市场。 24 25 5.3 实验性观察在未上漆的用水泥涂的碳化物切口插入物穿戴机制在高速湿用机器制造 在这个部分, 被观察的穿戴机制被提出未上漆的用水泥涂的碳化物工具(KC313) 在用机器制造ASTM 4140 钢在潮湿情况下。 用水泥涂的碳化物整体表现在使用乳化液蓄冷剂之下被改进了根据延伸的工具生活和减少用机器制造的费用。 不同的类型穿戴机制被激活了在切口插入物的侧面边由于使用蓄冷剂乳化液在用机器制造的过程期间。 这归结于蓄冷剂的作用在减少切割工具边缘和剪区域的平均温度在用机器制造期间。 结果磨蚀穿戴被减少了主导的更长的工具生活。 切割工具材料不同地表现对蓄冷剂由于他们对热冲击的各种各样的抵抗。 以下观察记录了用水泥涂的碳化物行为在高速用机器制造期间在湿切口之下。 图5-1 展示切口插入物的侧面边被使用以180m/ 的切口速度分钟。 SEM 图象被记录了在7 分钟用机器制造以后。 它显示微磨蚀穿戴, 哪些由狭窄的凹线辨认沿侧面边在金属的方向, 支持以相似的观察由巴恩斯和Pashby(人名) [ 41 ] 提供在铝里测试的通过蓄冷剂钻井插入物SiC 金属矩阵综合。 因为先锋是切口插入物几何的最微弱的部份, 渐近破裂开始的第一由于早期的非光滑的订婚在工具和工作片断材料之间。 并且, 这归结于也许导致言词一致的失败在瞬变被去骨切片的侧面切口楔子区域的重音集中[ 51, 52] 。 微黏附力穿戴的同样图象能看在边和工具由半锥体表明 127 形状在切割工具的边。 调查进一步, 徒升视线内被采取了在 侧面边以1000 次的放大和提出在图5-2.A 。 它显示清楚的微磨蚀穿戴被排列在金属流程的方向, 那里钴黏合剂比推出作为大球状小滴的WC 五谷被佩带了首先在更高的穿戴率。 图5-2B 提供a 迅速移动在被采取在其它地点为同样侧面边的观点。 热量点蚀由黑斑点显露用不同的深度和微小的裂缝, 繁殖在多方向由于使用蓄冷剂。 所以 点蚀, 微黏附力和微磨蚀的低水平被激活在湿切口之下; 当高水平微磨蚀穿戴被激活在干燥切口之下(依照被提出在早先章节) 。 图5-3.A 被采取了为切口插入物用机器制造在150mlmin 。 它显示一身典型的微黏附力穿戴, 那里芯片金属的数量临时地被遵守了在侧面边。 Kopac [ 53 ] 陈列了相似发现测试HSS 锡钻子插入物在钻井SAE1045 钢里。 这种被遵守的金属以后会被采拿走WC 五谷并且黏合剂从切口插入材料并且过程继续。 为了探索也许存在的其它类型穿戴, a 迅速移动在看法以750 次的放大被采取了依照被 -3B 。 图5-3B 展示二穿戴方式; 首先, 微热量镇压由垂直镇压表明显示在图5 位于图片的右边, 并且支持以Deamley 和Trent [ 27 的] 相似的研究结果。 第二, 微磨蚀穿戴在WC 五谷将被采图象的左边在钴黏合剂被微磨蚀严厉地毁坏了之后。 钴黏合剂是小五谷并且WC 是大大小五谷。 黏合剂的严厉畸变与WC 五谷一起也许归结于微黏附力和微磨蚀的活化作用 25 26 图5-1 SEM 图象(KC313) 显示微磨蚀和微黏附力(湿) 。 (a) SEM 微写器(KC313) 在180m/分钟显示微磨蚀何处钴黏合剂被佩带了首先 留下被推出的WC 球状小滴(湿) 。 (b) SEM 微写器(KC313) 在180m/分钟显示热量点蚀(湿) 。 图5-2 被扩大化的看法(KC313) 在湿切口之下: (a) SEM 微写器(KC313) 在钴黏合剂被佩带首先留下被推出的WC 球状小滴的180mlmin 显示的微磨蚀(湿), (b) SEM 微写器(KC313) 在180 。m/分钟显示热量点蚀(湿) 。 26 27 (a) SEM 图象显示微黏附力穿戴机制在150m/ 之下分钟(湿) 。 (b) (b) SEM 图象显示微热量镇压, 并且微磨蚀。 图5-3 被扩大化的看法(KC313) 在150m/分钟(湿): (a) SEM 图象显示微黏附力穿戴机制在150m/ 之下分钟(湿), (b) SEM 图象显示微疲劳镇压, 并且微磨蚀(湿) 。 佩带在速度和蓄冷剂介绍的切口情况之时。 所以, 微疲劳, 微磨蚀, 并且微黏附力穿戴机制被激活在湿情况下, 当高水平微磨蚀被观察了在干燥一个之下。 其次, 图5-4.A 被采取了以下更低的速度(120m/分钟) 。 它显示组合边缘(BUE) 承受了它的存在在切割工具的生活中, 相似与黄[ 13 ], 顾?等[ 36 ] 并且Venkatsh 等[ 55 ] 。 这BUE 保护了工具边缘和延长它的生活。 在干燥切口之下BUE 出现以更低的速度(90 和60 m/分钟), 但当介绍蓄冷剂BUE 开始显现出以更高的速度, 这归结于下落在剪区域温度影响芯片金属流程在切割工具边缘, 由使延展性降低到一平实高级比那个存在在干燥条件切口。 结果, 芯片金属起动积累容易在接口在金属芯片流程之间, 切割工具边缘和火山口浮出水面形成BUE 。 除BUE 形成之外, 微磨蚀穿戴被激活了以这速度由狭窄的凹线表明。 探索其它穿戴机制a 的可能性迅速移动在看法以3500 次的放大被采取了和被显示了在图5-4B 。 微疲劳是显然的由被繁殖的镇压在图象相似与Deamley 和Trent [ 27 ] 发现。 此外, 图5-4B 显示微磨蚀穿戴的征兆, 由钴黏合剂磨蚀和大被推出的WC 五谷遗骸的显露。 但是, 微磨蚀出现以这120m/ 的速度分钟比同样型微佩带观察在150 m/ 较不严厉的极小速度, 支持以巴恩斯[ 41 个] 相似的 27 28 研究结果。 所以, 微磨蚀, BUE 和微疲劳被激活了在湿情况下当, 黏附力, 高水平微磨蚀, 并且BUE 不是在干燥切口之下。 (a) (KC313) 显示组合边缘的SEM 图象在120m/ 之下分钟(湿) 。 (b) (KC3 13) 显示微疲劳的SEM 图象, 并且微磨蚀(湿) 。 图5-4 SEM 图象(KC313) 在120m/分钟(湿), (a) SEM 图象(KC313) 。 显示组合边缘, (b) (KC313) 显示微疲劳和微磨蚀的SEM 图象。 133 图5-5 是为切割工具用机器制造在90m/分钟, 那礼物好 工具生活一个阶段捕获在BUE 被采了之后。 侧面旁边展示巨型的金属黏附力的底部从工作片断材料。 图的上部在边缘显示边缘破裂。 站立在边缘破裂原因, 迅速移动在看法以2000 次的放大被提出在图5-6.A 。 微疲劳裂缝图象能看并且微损耗由许多孔显露, 并且支持以Lim 等[ 31 ] 观察在HSS 锡插入物。 由于BUE 破裂从切割工具边缘, 少量从切割工具材料是被采的忘记的许多孔。 图5-6B 是另迅速移动在景色的侧面边的上部以1000 次的放大和显示微磨蚀穿戴由狭窄的凹线表明。 此外, 确切的型微佩带机制出现在侧面边在60 m/ 之下分钟。 所以, 与干燥切口比较以90 m/ 的切口速度分钟和60 m/分钟, 较少微磨蚀, 更大的BUE 形成, 并且更高的微损耗率被激活了。 28 29 图5-5 SEM 图象显示工具边缘在积累边缘以后被采了。 (a) SEM 图象显示微疲劳裂缝, 并且微损耗。 (b) SEM 图象显示微磨蚀。 图5-6 SEM 图象(KC313) 在90m/分钟:(a) SEM 图象显示微疲劳裂缝, 并且微损耗, (b) SEM 图象显示微磨蚀。 5.4 实验性观察在上漆的用水泥涂的碳化物穿戴机制与锡TiCN 锡涂层在高速湿用机器制造 调查三明治涂层穿戴机制在湿切口之下被提出在这个部分从穿戴开始早期。 图5-7 展示早期工具穿戴开始在先锋当切开在410m/分钟。 边缘破裂能被看见, 它 29 30 开始了在先锋适当非光滑的联络在工具之间, 工作片断, 微磨蚀和重音集中。 调查进一步其它可能的原因在那导致涂层剥落的边缘破裂之后, a 迅速移动在看法以2000 次的放大被采取了和被提出了在图5-8.A 。 涂层破裂能被看见锡(的地方上部涂层的) 片段被金属芯片采了。 这结果微磨蚀的发生了那导致涂层剥落。 另一方面, 边缘是切口插入物几何和工作的最微弱的部份如同重音集中器也许导致言词一致的失败在瞬变被去骨切片的侧面切口楔子区域[ 51, 52] 。 磨蚀穿戴和重音集中因素留下一种不均匀的边缘配置在微标度在用机器制造的开始以后。 最新小金属片段开始遵守在被开发的空白被连续的芯片运动以后采依照被显示在上图5-8.A 。 边缘破裂其它观点依照被显示被采取了同样切割工具以2000 次的放大在上图5-8B 。 它提出破裂和裂缝在磨刀的工具边缘。 一个概要图由图片表明5-9, 提出了进步上漆的切口插入物失败开始在插入物边缘。 它并且被注意了在插入物期间测试, 失败发生在插入物首先渐近然后进步往侧面边。 结果, 关于优选先锋的一项研究 图5-7 SEM 图象(KC732) 在410m/极小的显示的边缘破裂和微磨蚀(湿) (a) SEM 图象显示边缘破裂。 30 31 (b) SEM 图象显示破裂和裂缝在磨刀的插入物边缘。 图5-8 SEM (KC732) 在410m/分钟和早期穿戴阶段(湿): (a) SEM 图象显示边缘破裂, (b) SEM 图象显示破裂和裂缝在磨刀的插入物边缘。 图5-9 涂上的失败和进展从边缘开始。 半径改进涂层黏附力, 并且它的耐磨性, 也许并且是一个题目为未来工作。 图5-1.0A 被采取了在工具失败以后以410m/ 的速度分钟。 它显示完全地被暴露的基体和严厉滑的穿戴在侧面边。 涂层存在在火山口表面和面孔较少穿戴比侧面边。 所以这有效因为上部保护者为先锋和大多数穿戴将发生在侧面边象滑穿戴。 图5-10B 是a 迅速移动在看法以3500 次的放大, 并且展示涂上残余在侧面边。 仍然, 微磨蚀和轻微的拉伸破裂在金属芯片的方向流动。 Ezugwa 等[ 28 ] 并且Kato [ 32 ] 陈列了相似发现。 但是, 拉伸破裂在这种情况下是较少在严肃比什么被观察了在干燥切口。 这归结于蓄冷剂的贡献在下降切口温度, 哪些减少了塑料变形在高温结果。 因此, 与干燥切口比较以同样速度, 拉伸破裂是可利用的以较少严肃和微磨蚀滑。 但是, 在干燥切口高水平微磨蚀, 高水平拉伸破裂和滑穿戴发生了。 图5-11 被采取了在穿戴早期以360m/ 的速度分钟。 它显示滑穿戴, 涂上的剥落和裂缝开始显现出在罐子和TiCN 涂层之间在磨刀的工具边缘。 图5-12.A 显示 31 32 什么的好的介绍被描述了及早看待小片段的发展在工具边缘。 被遵守的金属片段运作与微磨蚀穿戴一起导致涂层剥落。 (a) SEM 图象显示滑的穿戴。 (b) SEM 图象显示微磨蚀和拉伸破裂。 图5-10 SEM 图象(KC732) 在410m/分钟在失败以后(湿): (a) SEM 图象显示滑的磨损, (b) SEM 图象显示微磨蚀和拉伸破裂。 图5-11 SEM 图象在360m/ 穿戴早期极小(潮湿) 显示涂层和剥落显现出的裂缝在罐子和TiCN 层数之间。 金属芯片的大小被遵守在边缘几乎是15g 。 因为它是 不稳定它以后将被采拿走涂层的一些片段与它并且过程继续。 另一迅速移动视线内以5000 次的放大为同样插入物被显示在图5-12B 表明一个最近被开发的裂缝在涂层层数之间。 32 33 图5-13.A 被采取同样插入物在失败以后当用机器制造在360m/极小和湿情况。 涂上的剥落, 并且滑穿戴可能由狭窄的凹线看见和表明。 另外, 山谷穿戴的最初的发展能看在裁减的最大深度。 进一步调查由采取依照被显示执行徒升视线内以2000 次的放大在上图5-13B 。 一身清楚的微磨蚀穿戴和微疲劳镇压被开发了依照被显示, 哪深深地被延伸通过在整个三涂上的层数之外深深直到基体。 所以, 与干燥切口比较, 微疲劳裂缝, 较不拉伸破裂, 较少微磨蚀穿戴被激活了在湿切口。 当微疲劳裂缝, 高水平微磨蚀, 并且高水平拉伸破裂是区别类型穿戴在干燥条件下以同样切口速度。 其次, 图5-14.A 被采取为切割工具用机器制造在310m/分钟。 结果与早先插入物是相似用机器制造在360m/分钟, 那里金属片段黏附力发生了在工具边缘, 滑穿戴和涂上剥落。 另外, 黑斑点出现在图的上面在火山口表面是一空起因于缺点在涂层过程中。 在这个情况, 火山口表面快速地将被佩带比侧面表面。 (a) SEM 图象陈列遵守了金属片段在工具边缘。 (b) SEM 图象陈列被开发的裂缝在涂层层数之间。 图5-12 SEM 图象(KC732) 在早期穿戴360m/分钟(湿): (a) SEM 图象陈列遵守了金属片段在工具边缘, (b) SEM 图象陈列被开发的裂缝在涂层层数之间。 33 34 (a) SEM 图象显示涂层剥落的和滑的穿戴在工具失败以后 (b) SEM 图象显示微磨蚀, 并且微疲劳镇压被开发在涂层层数之间 图5-13 SEM 图象KC732 在失败以后用机器制造在360m/分钟(湿): (a) SEM 图象显示涂层剥落的和滑的穿戴在工具失败以后, (b) SEM 图象显示微磨蚀, 并且微疲劳镇压显现了出在涂层层数之间。 (a) SEM 图象显示金属黏附力, 滑穿戴和涂上空隙 34 35 (a) SEM 显示微磨蚀。 图5-14 SEM (KC732) 在310m/穿戴极小的早期(湿): (a) SEM 图象。 显示金属黏附力, 滑穿戴和涂上空隙, (b) SEM 显示微磨蚀。 调查其它可能的穿戴机制形象5-14B 被采取了作为徒升以1500 次的放大。 它显示微磨蚀由被推出的大罐子小滴显露在小大小的失踪以后一个。 图5-15.A 被采取了在工具失败以后, 加速的插入物失败采取了地方这里开始了从涂层空隙早先被提及在图5-14.A, 并且继续用完大数量从基体材料在一身高穿戴对估计。 但是, 各个实验被重覆得两次证实工具生活数据。 因此, 它值得提及, 失败发生在这个具体案件突出质量管理的重要性特别是为这类型昂贵的切口插入物被使用为半精整和最后工序。 图5-15B 是徒升视线内以火山口表面的3500 次的放大。 它提出一身严厉微磨蚀穿戴发生在K313 基体。 比较在干燥和湿情况之间以这速度(310 分钟), 微磨蚀和金属黏附力在插入物边缘是可利用的在湿切口, 当拉伸破裂和微磨蚀被观察了在干燥切口之下。 图5-16.A 被采取了为切割工具被佩带在260 m/ 之下分钟。 金属黏附力在工具边缘能看并且轻微的损耗在侧面表面。 结果大罐子小滴被互作用被采在工作片断材料和切割工具侧面表面之间。 图5-16B 是a 迅速移动在以2000 次的放大。 它显示转折在被遵守的金属和表面之间由微损耗过程用完水平几个孔(在底部左图) 。 采取仔细的审视在切口插入物在失败以后, 图5-17A 显示工作片断材料的巨型的黏附力在侧面边由相似的Lim 等[ 31 ] 支持发现在学习HSS- 148 锡和Ezugwa 等[ 28 ] 在学习罐子碾碎的插入物穿戴机制 (断断续续的切口) 。 这种现象发生了结果介绍蓄冷剂乳化液, 哪些下降了切口温度, 减少了用机器制造的芯片的延展性和韧性。 这些因素使金属更加易受影响遵守侧面边导致微损耗穿戴在被采依照被显示以后在上图5-17B 。 当切口继续更多制件材料黏附对切割工具边和采拿走以它小涂层小滴忘记毛孔早先被提及在图5-17B 。 所以, 凹线佩带, 并且微损耗穿戴被激活了在干燥之下当; 微黏附力和高水平微损耗被激活了在湿切口之下。 35 36 (a) SEM 图象显示鼻子损伤开始了从涂层空在火山口表面。 SEM 图象陈列切断磨蚀穿戴在火山口表面。 图5-15 SEM 图象(KC732) 在失败以后在310m/分钟(湿): (a) SEM 图象显示鼻子损伤开始了从涂层空在火山口表面, (b) SEM 图象陈列切断磨蚀穿戴在火山口表面。 36 37 (b) SEM 图象显示转折区域在被遵守的金属和破旧的表面和微损耗之间在bottom(微孔) 。 图5-16 SEM 图象(KC732) 在早期穿戴在260 m/ 之下min(wet): (a) SEM 图象显示金属黏附力, (b) SEM 图象显示转折区域在被遵守的金属和破旧的表面和微损耗之间在底部(微孔) 。 (a) SEM 图象显示巨型的黏附力在侧面表面。 37 38 (b) SEM 图象显示微损耗穿戴的许多孔征兆。 图5-17 SEM 图象(KC732) 在260m/分钟在失败以后(湿): (a) SEM 图象显示巨型的黏附力在侧面表面, (b) SEM 图象显示微损耗穿戴的许多孔征兆。 38