科技英语语法第一部分-词类

《1》 [改错：语法书第271页倒数第四行“它通常省略谓语”应该改为“它通常省略主语”。] Grammar is important for you to understand scientific literature with accuracy. In writing scientific English, grammar appears more important. Some professors and Ph.D. candidates sent their papers to the well-known international technical journals, such as the American IEEE and the British IET. The reviewers’ comment might often be like this: “What is described in your paper is acceptable. But your English is pretty poor. Please improve it (or: Please rewrite your paper entirely). ” As has been mentioned above, grammar is important. But it is not everything. “Overkilling”[过分] in sentence analysis is objectionable. My idea is: Emphasis should be laid on what you find most difficult and on what is different from our mother tongue—the Chinese language, which, it seems to me, is true for the study of any foreign language. Today we’ll begin with the parts of speech[词类]. They are just like components in electronic devices[电子设备]. Before you start to learn a TV receiver, for instance, you should have a good understanding of the functions of various components. Then you will be able to learn the machine well. Otherwise, you won’t be able to do so, I’m afraid. However, this point is often ignored by the Chinese students while they are learning a foreign language. As a matter of fact, many problems arise from the misunderstanding of the part of speech of a word and its function in a sentence. Chapter 1 Parts of Speech (词类) I. Articles （冠词） We restrict our discussion to the following points. 1.Their translation into Chinese There are three possibilities: (Which one will be adopted is determined by the trial-and-error method“试探法”.) (1)​ They must be translated into Chinese. (2)​ They mustn’t be translated into Chinese. (3)​ They may or may not be translated into Chinese. Examples: A table is often made of wood. Here is an analysis. [ Here is an experiment. Here is an example. = An example follows.] θ is a parameter. The proof of the theorem is not difficult. The unit of current（电流）is the ampere（安培）. 2. The basic usage of articles (1)​ Before a countable noun in singular form, an article must be used. (2)​ Before a noun (countable or uncountable) which is specifically referred to, a definite article must be used. “如果把电压(voltage)加到电路(circuit)的两端，在 电路中就会有电流(current)流动(flow)。” If a voltage is applied to [across] (the) two ends [terminals] of a circuit, an electric current will result [flow] in the circuit. “师能创造以前从来没有过的东西。” what has never existed before.★ An engineer can create things that have never existed before [Engineers] something that has never existed .. “钨（tungsten）就是用在电灯里的那种金属。” electric lamps.★ Tungsten is the (very) metal used in an electric lamp. 3. Their special positions★ “这里的飞机[aircraft]都是从国外进口的。”(with “all” as an adjective) All the aircraft here were imported from abroad. “这是一台如此(so)灵敏的(sensitive)安培表(ammeter)以致于它能测出电流的微弱变化(slight change)。”(with “this” as the subject of the sentence) This is so sensitive an instrument that it can measure a slight change in [of] current. Summary: （1） all both + the + noun half （2） such + a (an) + noun what (多么)—used in an exclamatory sentence （3）★ how（多么） as … (as) so （如此） + adjective + a (an) + noun too（太） **************************************************** I. C/E Translation 1. 中国具有数倍于法国那么大的面积。（You are asked to use the pattern “as + adj. + noun + as” with “China” as the subject.） 2. 我们得确定为提起这石头需要多大的力。 II. Article Filling 1. __magnet（磁铁） has __ S pole（极） and __ N pole. 2. That is ______ 18-volt battery. 3. This is ______ UNIX system header（标题）. III. E/C Translation 1. We find that we are dealing with too large a class of circuits（电路）. So we have to choose some of them for discussion here. 2. So instinctive（本能的）an act（行为）as choosing a gradual（平缓的）slope（坡度）of a hill to walk up instead of a steep（陡峭的）slope is based on the principle of the inclined plane（斜面）. 3.This is about as small a mass[质量] as you can find anywhere. 4. This is too complicated a problem for us to go into. 5. A friend function（友人函数）is as much a part of that interface（接口）as is a member function（成员函数）. 6. What an important instrument（仪器） is one that adequately（适当地） displays（显示出） the Fourier transform（傅氏变换）of a function of time（时函数）, even when the interval of integration（积分区间）is not infinity（无穷大）. ********************************************** China has several times as large an area as France (does).★[or: China has an area (which is) several times as large as that of France.] We have to determine how large a force is required [needed] to lift the stone. 4. Special habitual uses of the indefinite articles before uncountable nouns (especially to express the idea of “。。。一下；作一。。。”) An increase in pressure always causes a decrease in volume. It is the force of friction（摩擦）that brings the car to a stop. There is a growing awareness that it is urgent to reduce global warming. We shall start with a study of forces. The importance of the higher frequencies can readily be seen by an examination of the bandwidth（带宽） of the audio-frequency spectrum（音频频谱）. a sound knowledge of … a good understanding of … a clear description of … a study of … a comparison of [between] … a brief qualitative discussion of … a thorough treatment of … a mention of … a theoretical analysis of … an examination of … a direct application of … a calculation of … ●Added Translation Exercise: 1. (1) A careful discussion of this point leads to the concept of internal energy. (2) An increase of internal energy is usually accompanied（伴随）by a rise in temperature , and a decrease in internal energy by a temperature drop（温度的下降）. (3) A detailed treatment（详细的论述）of subject matter（主题）in all of Section（节）3-7 is available. 2. (1) “[本文]对其性能（performance）作了初步的（initial）分析。” An initial analysis of its performance has been made (in this paper). (2)“为此，对计算机科学必须有很好的了解。” For this purpose [To do this], a good knowledge [understanding] of computer science is necessary. (or: For this purpose, it is necessary to have [obtain; develop] a good knowledge of computer science.) ______________________________________________ II．Prepositions (介词) 1. Pay attention to functions of a prepositional phrase (1)​ Adverbial（状）：Pay attention to their positions in the Chinese versions. (It's generally put before the predicate or the subject in the Chinese language.) There are many components in this device. ▲Predicative adverbial （表语性状语）(or: a special appositive“同位语”) Their channel resistances（沟道电阻）will be relatively low, of the order of 500 Ω.（the order of = about“大约”） The receiver noise figure（噪声值）is low, in the order of 5 to 10 dB. (2) Attribute（定）—as a postmodifier（后置定语）only The switch on the wall near the door of the room is for the ceiling light. (3) Complement（补）：mostly the “as-phrase” required by many verbs define A as B regard A as B refer to A as B speak of A as B This parameter（参数）is defined as the ratio of signal to noise. The mass（质量）of a body can be thought of as the force per unit of acceleration（加速度）. We refer to the opposition to the flow of electrons as electrical resistance. ***An increasing number of engineering designers find it of value to have a working knowledge of electronic computers. *** a few set verbal phrases: ( keep … at work; set … in motion ) Pressure is required for forcing the water through a pipe.★ Everywhere we can see gravity（重力）in action. Electricity keeps machines at work. Now set the charges（电荷）in motion and measure the magnetic force（磁力）. (4) Predicative（表语） Another common approach is through the use of a symmetrical square wave. (对称方波) The operating path is along the segment（线段）a’b’ of the diode characteristic（二极管特性曲线）. (5) Parenthesis（插入语）—many set phrases (in fact; of course; for example, ……) (6) Prepositional object（介词宾语）—only after a few prepositions, such as “from★, except★, to, …) The energy from within the earth can be exploited. Noise is present in every electrical circuit（电路）except at a temperature of absolute zero. The highest order（度）of accuracy obtainable in using this technique is to within 0.01 percent. (7) Expressing a range of values as a premodifier（前置修饰语） A package（集成块）containing one or more op amps（运算放大器）typically has between 8 and 14 terminals. This greatly simplifies the measurement of phase（相位）in the frequency range of from 1 to 1,000 MHz. 2. The useful ideas of several commonly used prepositions in scientific English (1) of ①“of + some abstract nouns ” = corresponding adjectives This point is of great importance ( = very important). ② Expressing the idea of“在……之中” Of all the computers here, this one works best. Of these three new chapters, the first deals with receivers. ③ Expressing the relation of apposition（同位） The science of chemistry is very useful in the modern world. The concept of potential difference（电位差）will be introduced in the next section. This battery can supply a current of 4 mA. ④ Introducing the logical subject of the noun before it which comes from an intransitive verb Attention should be paid to the variation of the transistor current with temperature. ⑤ Introducing the logical object of the noun before it which comes from a transitive verb The separation of aluminum from its ore（矿石）was very difficult at that time. ⑥ Introducing the logical subject of a special type of complex infinitive phrase ★The ability of a body to do work is called energy. (2) with ① “with + some abstract nouns ” = corresponding adverbs It is now possible to change ac into dc with great ease. ② Expressing the idea of “随着”when it is used together with “vary, change, increase, decrease, rise, fall” This parameter（参数）varies with temperature. ③ Forming the “with-structure”★ With the switch on position 1, the output impedance（阻抗）will be maximum. This parameter shall be measured with Ep grounded（接地）. ④ Expressing the idea of“用”（mostly followed by a physical thing） We can see distant stars with this telescope（望远镜）. ⑤ Expressing the ideas of“对于；在……情况下；有了”or sometimes an additional explanation of the subject when it is at the very beginning of a sentence With the alternating current, things are different. With large files, the index file（索引文件）itself may become too large to be kept in memory. ⑥ Expressing the idea of“与” A comparison of the experimental result with the computed one has been made. (3) by ① Expressing all the quantities except time and distance In this case v and i differ in phase（相位）by 50o. ② Expressing the idea of“根据；按照”in the mathematical derivation By Ohm’s law, we can write out the following equation. ③ “by + gerund（or a noun from a verb）” means“通过……” By studying this model, one can understand the structure of the atom. By increasing the number of processors（处理器）, we hope to get more work done in less time. ④ “by + method” expresses the idea of “用…方法” The equation can be solved by this method. （4）for ① Expressing the length of time or distance This output may stay high for a long time. ② Expressing the ideas of“对于；如果；当……时候”(a condition) For x＜1, this equation holds. ③ Expressing the unknown you wish to find when it is used together with“solve” In this case we need to solve this equation for x. ④ Introducing the logical subject of an infinitive so as to form the complex infinitive structure It is necessary for us to determine what this angle is. ⑤ Expressing the object “对象”（Especially it is put after “method, technique, algorithm, condition, requirement, language, prerequisite, etc.”） This problem is too difficult for students. The necessary condition for this inequality（不等式）is x≤1. Knowing C is not a prerequisite for learning C++. Object-oriented（面向对象）programming is a technique for programming. (5) in 1​ Expressing the unit for measurement, meaning“用” （The noun after it must be in plural except the word “hertz”） Capacitance（电容）is measured in farads and frequency in hertz. ② Meaning “朝”before the noun “direction” The current in a diode（二极管）flows only in one direction. ③ Meaning“以，用”before the nouns “way; manner” We should try to solve the problem in every possible way. ④ Meaning“在……方面” These devices differ greatly in size. ⑤ Expressing the ideas of“在……期间[时候]；在……过程中；在……方面” when it is followed by a gerund or a noun from a verb In using the above equation, it does not matter which surface is considered as 1 and which as 2. In choosing which algorithm to use in a particular situation, we must consider the different properties of the various algorithms. ⑥ It is often used after the nouns “reduction, decrease, increase, change, rise, fall, drop” This ammeter can measure the slight change in current. The inclusion（接入）of Re causes a decrease in amplification（放大量）. ﹡⑦ It means “在……以后”when it is used with the terminative verb (or a predicate expressing a state) in future tense. [Otherwise, it means “within.”] They will leave for Beijing in a few days to attend an international conference on communications. The wave will be back in a fraction of a second. ▲⑧ It means “含有” This is an equation（方程）in x. ▲⑨ It represents the division（除）or denominator（分母）. This is a slope（坡度）of 1 in 5. There is a 3-in-20 chance（机会，概率）. (6) on/upon It means“一当……（就）”,“在……以后”★, or“在……时” when used before a gerund or a noun from the verb. Upon substituting（代入）the actual magnitudes（实际数值）, it turned out（结果）that v is the velocity of light. (7) over 1​ Expressing the idea of “通过”（In this case, before it there is a verb or a noun expressing movement and after it there is a noun expressing distance.） It is necessary to protect data that are transferred over the network. This new type of aircraft can fly over 5,000 kilometers. Its transmission over a long distance causes some loss of energy. 2​ Expressing the idea of “在……上空”（In this case, after it there is a noun expressing place.） Its flight over this city was a great success. ③ Expressing the idea of “与……相比”（after some nouns，especially “advantage”） This new design has many advantages over the original one. ④ Expressing the idea of “在……范围内” We must perform the integration（积分）over the whole area. The determination of its average velocity over this distance is not difficult. ⑤ Introducing the logical object of the noun before it (only after few words) This voltage gives the control over the brightness of the light spot. In the past, the programmers had complete control over the system. ⑥ Expressing the idea of“more than” This wire is over five times as long as that one. ⑦ “over the years” means“在这[那]几年中” The reliability of modern electronic equipment has improved greatly over the years. III. Coordinators（等立连词） 1. and (1) These basic circuits（电路）consist of independent sources, diodes and resistors. (2) Water is a liquid and ice is a solid. (3) This current is extremely small and can be neglected. (4) Air has weight and occupies space. The solution presented here is the simplest of those we consider, and often the best. (5) We can go one step farther and take into account the nonzero slope（非零斜率）of the actual curves. Now let us go one step further and differentiate（微分）the unit step function（单位阶跃函数）. The author can't require eager people to slow down and read the books they ought to read. In this section, we set down and illustrate some of the rules of Boolean algebra（布尔代数）. go and …= go to (do) come and …= come to (do) stop and …= stop to (do) try and …= try to (do) go one step further and … set down and … (6) Try hard, and you will work the nut loose. “an imperative sentence + and” = if-clause Summary: meanings: “和；以及；而；从而；并且；同时；于是；那么；来；如果” patterns: general: A(,) and B A, B(,) and C A, B, C(,) and D emphatic: A and B and C and D Its commonest form is one for which n=2 and m=1 and ω=2ωx. Another well-known method is due to Korringa and Kohn and Rostoker. 2. or (1) Accuracy is expressed as absolute error or relative error. Much ado [du:]（费尽力气）has been made about whether the design of computer hardware and software is art, science or engineering. A part of the variation results from the fact that the earth is not spherical（球形的）, that the observation points are at different elevations（高度）, or that there are local variations in earth density（泥土密度）. Once G has been measured, the equation for Newton's law of universal gravitation（万有引力）can be used to find the force of gravitation between any two objects（物体）of known mass（质量）with a known distance between their centers of mass. Or if the force of gravitation, the distance, and one of the masses are known, the equation can be used to find the value of the other mass. (2) There are three main laws of mechanics or three laws of Newton. This variable（变量）should be compared with the ideal, or desired, value. In this case Q3 is a very high impedance（阻抗）, or open. (3) We should learn to choose our words carefully and use them accurately, or they will make our speech silly and dull（愚蠢而单调无味）. Computers are particularly useful in such systems as telemetry（遥测）, where signals must be quickly recorded or be lost. （“otherwise[要不然]”— when “or” is used together with “must,” “important,” “essential,” "imperative,” "should,” or “necessary” which appears in the first part of the sentence.） (4) The greater the resistivity（电阻率）, the greater the field（电场）needed to establish a given current density（电流密度）, or the smaller the current density caused by a given field. （“或者说”） Summary: meanings:“或”；“即”；“要不然”；“或者说” patterns: general: A or B A, B(,) or C A, B, C(,) or D emphatic: A or B or C or D When A or B or C or D is high, the collector（集电极）of T1 is LOW. Unlike voltage or current or power, the measurement of phase shift（相位移）inherently（固有地）involves a comparison of two signals. The term "force" is to be interpreted literally（字面上） as the force, or torque（力矩）, or pressure, or whatever may be producing the distortion. These interrupts（中断）signify（表明）that output has completed, or that input data are available, or that a failure has been detected. ●​ Added Translation Exercise: Here T is in oC. Water expands upon freezing, unlike most materials. An increase of 1 atm（大气压）lowers the freezing point of water by about 0.007 oC. M-ary signaling schemes（多元发送信号方法） are preferred over binary（二进制）signaling schemes for transmitting digital（数字的）information over band-pass channels（带通信道）. The jammer（干扰机）spreads its power over the entire FH spectrum（频谱）. Soft-decision decoding（译码）offers significant improvement in performance over hard-decision decoding. Of this energy, a part is reflected and the remainder absorbed. This satellite was used for communications between the United States and Great Britain, France and Italy. The North Sea lies between Britain and Norway, Denmark, Germany, and the Netherlands. ______________________________________________ IV. Numerals（数词） 1. The ways to express a fraction（分数） (1)​ a general formula Numerator (a cardinal number) / Denominator (an ordinal number in plural form except when the numerator is ≤1, in which case a singular form is used) 5/6 five sixths 1/2 one [a] half ** Can we say “one second”? “地球[的]十分之七以上是水。” Over seven tenths of the earth is water. The rest mass（静止质量）of the products（产物）of the explosion is less than the original rest mass by one ten-thousandth of the original rest mass. This means that the volume（体积）decreases by 50 millionths of the original volume. “零点五克” five tenths of a gram (or: 0.5 gram—a decimal number) How can we express the idea of “零点几（克；伏特；安培）”？ Formula: a few (or: several) tenths of a [an] + unit The weight of a given body varies by a few tenths of a percent from point to point on the earth's surface. “这个电阻(resistor)上的电压(voltage)为零点零零几伏特(volt)。” The voltage across this resistor is a few thousandths of a volt. （2）special forms used mainly in science (often to express a very small fraction) in a …______ a cardinal number + part(s) + per …______ (numerator) in an Arabic number (denominator) This number differs from that one by more than 1 part in 107. A cesium clock（铯钟）maintains its frequency constant to one part in one hundred billion (1011) or better. Its volume（体积）decreases by 20 parts per million for a pressure increase of 1